LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE RADIO AS A MEDIUM OF CAMPAIGN FOR SEX EDUCATION IN BONNY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, RIVERS STATE

LITERATURE REVIEW ON  THE RADIO AS A MEDIUM OF CAMPAIGN FOR SEX EDUCATION IN BONNY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, RIVERS STATE

2.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses literature relevant to this study; it includes the theoretical frame work used in the study and a review of concepts in the sub-field.
2.1   Theoretical framework
The research was based on the cognitive dissonance theory, and the agenda setting theory. This section takes a look at these theories.
2.1.1 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Almost half a century ago social psychologist Leon Festinger developed the cognitive dissonance theory (Nwachukwu, Asak & Asadu, 2013). The theory has obviously stood the test of time in that it is mentioned in most general and social psychology textbooks today. The theory is somewhat counterintuitive and, in fact, fits into a category of counterintuitive social psychology theories sometimes referred to as action-opinion theories (Joule, 1996). The fundamental characteristic of action opinion theories is that they propose that actions can influence subsequent beliefs and attitudes. This is counterintuitive in that it would seem logical that our actions are the result of our beliefs/attitudes, not the cause of them. However, on further examination these types of theories have great intuitive appeal in that the theories, particularly cognitive dissonance, address the pervasive human tendency to rationalize (Draycotts & Dabbs, 1998).
Cognitive dissonance theory is based on three fundamental assumptions
1. Humans are sensitive to inconsistencies between actions and beliefs.
• According to the theory, we all recognize, at some level, when we are acting in a way that is inconsistent with our beliefs/attitudes/opinions. In effect, there is a built in alarm that goes off when we notice such an inconsistency, whether we like it or not. For example, if you have a belief that it is wrong to cheat, yet you find yourself cheating on a test, you will notice and be affected by this inconsistency.
2. Recognition of this inconsistency will cause dissonance, and will motivate an individual to resolve the dissonance.
• Once you recognize that you have violated one of your principles, according to this theory, you won’t just say “oh well”. You will feel some sort of mental anguish about this. The degree of dissonance, of course, will vary with the importance of your belief/attitude/principle and with the degree of inconsistency between your behavior and this belief. In any case, according to the theory, the greater the dissonance the more you will be motivated to resolve it.
3. Dissonance will be resolved in one of three basic ways:
a) Change beliefs
• Perhaps the simplest way to resolve dissonance between actions and beliefs is simply to change your beliefs. You could, of course, just decide that cheating is o.k. This would take care of any dissonance. However, if the belief is fundamental and important to you such a course of action is unlikely. Moreover, our basic beliefs and attitudes are pretty stable, and people don’t just go around changing basic beliefs/attitudes/opinions all the time, since we rely a lot on our world view in predicting events and organizing our thoughts. Therefore, though this is the simplest option for resolving dissonance it’s probably not the most common.
b) Change actions
• A second option would be to make sure that you never do this action again.
Lord knows that guilt and anxiety can be motivators for changing behavior.
So, you may say to yourself that you will never cheat on a test again, and this may aid in resolving the dissonance. However, aversive conditioning (i.e., guilt/anxiety) can often be a pretty poor way of learning, especially if you can train yourself not to feel these things. Plus, you may really benefit in some way from the action that’s inconsistent with your beliefs. So, the trick would be to get rid of this feeling without changing your beliefs or your actions, and this leads us to the third, and probably most common, method of resolution.
c) Change perception of action
• A third and more complex method of resolution is to change the way you view/remember/perceive your action. In more colloquial terms, you would “rationalize” your actions. For example, you might decide that the test you cheated on was for a dumb class that you didn’t need anyway. Or you may say to yourself that everyone cheats so why not you? In other words, you think about your action in a different manner or context so that it no longer appears to be inconsistent with your actions (Stone, 2003). If you reflect on this series of mental gymnastics for a moment you will probably recognize why cognitive dissonance has come to be so popular. You notice such post-hoc rationalizations of behavior on the part of others all the time, though it’s not so common to see it in one’s self.
2.1.2 The Agenda Setting Theory
The agenda setting theory was propounded by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1972. The theory says that the media is not successful much of the time in telling people what to think of, but it is successful in telling people what to think about. What this means in essence is that the media tell the people what they should view as important. To achieve this, the media places more emphasis on some issues as compared to others.
Nwachukwu, Asak and Asadu (2013) citing Sheufele and Tewksbury (2007) said that there is a strong correlation between the emphasis that the mass media place on certain issues and the importance attributed to these issues by mass audiences.
Proponents of the agenda-setting theory are of the view that the media often present to the audience basic socio-political and economic issues that dominate popular discussion and debate even at interpersonal level (Ndimele and Innocent, 2006). As a result of the ability of the mass media to influence and shape the thinking of the audiences, politicians usually employ the mass media in their electioneering. According to Maxwell and Shaw (1976) the media emphasis on an event or issues influences the audience to see the event or issue as important. They believed the media not only informs, but it also influences us as to what is important to know. So therefore, the media can set agenda for the society. As stated earlier, the media give coverage and emphasis to certain issues and topics through talk shows, debates, documentaries etc. while at the same time relegating other issues and topics. Such coverage ultimately become more important than others to the audience, and consequently forms the basis for decision making. Generally, people depend on the media to get information on what is happening in their society and the world at large. Whatever the mass media give coverage is considered as important. As a result, everyday discussion is hinged on topics gleaned from the media. Since we all depend on the media, the media set agenda for our thoughts, perception and behaviour. This is the agenda-setting function of the media (Ndimele and Innocent, 2006).

2.2 Conceptual Review
To enable and boost our understanding of the overall research, a revisit of relevant concepts is necessary.
2.2.1 Sexuality Education in Nigeria
Sexuality education has been given various definitions by various schools of thought. AHI (2003) described sexuality education as “a planned process of education that fosters the acquisition of factual information, the formation of positive attitudes, beliefs and values as well as the development of skills to cope with the biological, psychological, socio-cultural and spiritual aspects of human sexuality.” That is, learning about the anatomy, physiology and bio-chemistry of the sexual response system which determines identity, orientations, thoughts and feelings as influenced by values beliefs, ethics and moral concerns. It is the interactive relationship of these dimensions that describes an individual’s total sexuality (SIECUS, 1995). Also, sexuality education teaches us that, religious principles, beliefs, rules and regulations and ethical considerations affect our everyday interactions just as our culture, role models in our families and our friends impact us as well. Sexuality education is simply the art of learning how to conform to a certain art of living by being able to reason, examine and monitor oneself in clearly defined terms.
2.2.2 Origin of Sexuality Education
Sexuality education came into being in different countries at various times. The sexual revolution of the 1800s contributed immensely to the debate of sexual pleasure as an ethical substance which continued to be governed by relations of force, struggle and establishment of dominion. During that period, women started agitating for more debates on issues concerning their sexuality. They questioned and revolted against rules and regulations prohibiting the use of contraceptives and the spread of information about them. The first six to seven decades of that century, saw both males and females beginning to question the concept of virginity and male dominance. Bruess and Greenberg (1994) revealed that, between 35 and 45 per cent of females and 55-65 per cent of males engaged in sexual relationships before marriage at that time. As far back as 1897 a female Swedish doctor, Karolina Widerstorm, saw the need to educate the young especially the girls about sexual hygiene as a way of informing and protecting them from sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphilis which were found to be very common during that period.
To her, the idea was that, “if girls got to know in good time how pregnancy came about and how sexually transmitted diseases were spread, they would be better able to protect themselves. In this way girls were considered to be able to take responsibility for the sexual health for boys as well as for themselves” (Lena, 2000). Given the controversial nature of sexuality education at that time, the high prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases was used as the basis of introducing sexuality education in the schools. Despite all the positive potentials of sexuality education, the major challenges were what form sexuality should take and at what level it should be introduced in the schools. There was also the problem of methodology. Sexuality education was seen as the gospel of the flesh that could lead to sexual espionage, egoism and revelry among the young. The young recipients of sexuality education were therefore referred to as “victims”. Notwithstanding, serious advocates of sexuality education insisted on driving home the potentials of sexuality education such as building new standards and removing deceptions between people and by the dawn of the 1900s, several events had occurred which changed the way people perceived sexuality hence sexuality education was introduced in Swedish schools. Talking to the young about sexual life became less controversial among the Swedish.
As women became empowered with education, their number in the workforce increased and this made them assume a visibly significant part of the society. They appeared more aggressive in their demands for equality in all spheres of human endeavour. Overall, they became more active partners in sexual activity. These “new” women, according to Murstein (1974), wanted freedom similar to that of the men. The rise in the status of women in America during that period also enhanced discussions on sexuality issues. There was a significant effect on the receptivity to the subject of sexuality by the people.
In Nigeria as well, traditional forms of sexuality education existed in kinship systems and coming-of-age ceremonies where the youth were tutored about manhood and womanhood. Its essence was purely biological and culture specific. There were various methods of contraceptives which included virginity, herbs, breastfeeding, the ring, and abstinence; most of which were strictly meant for the married and kept as a secret. Issues on sexually transmitted diseases were also of great concern but were barely discussed while the contraction of them was a big shame and stigma. The socialization process of the child remained strictly the only way of acquainting the child with issues like family relationships and public manners with very little room for self-expression.
As school education expanded, people began to question moral view points about virginity and abstinence and wondered about the credibility of rigid moral standards and myths that surrounded sexual issues.
The fast pace of urbanization encouraged rapid improvement in communication, transportation which had tremendous effect on sexuality issues in Nigeria. The use of telephones and letters helped to promote interpersonal relationships. The print media intensified and popularised the notion of flirting, dating and a variety of sexual behaviours. Intimate relationships developed from social activities such as dancing, singing and local drama sketches. In spite of these changes, information on sexuality were still kept in the dark, not openly discussed, and was perceived as dirty or evil particularly by religious leaders who often viewed morality as being determined by a higher order from above (Adepoju, 2005). The mundane views about early childhood sexuality was kept intact until recently when it came to light that early childhood experiences are related to sexuality.
Today, conservative morality about sexuality is beginning to diminish with people gradually coming to terms with the fact that sexual knowledge can serve as a great weapon against ignorance.
2.2.3 Development of Sexuality Education in Nigeria
Initial efforts to introduce sexuality issues in the Nigerian educational system was done through the introduction and institutionalisation of population education which was considered as a potential way of tackling the problem of rapid population growth and its consequences for socio-economic development in the country. The need to inform young people about the causes and consequences of uncontrolled rapid population growth has become paramount hence the National Population Policy of 1988 which was recently revised and officially launched in February 2005, was put in place with emphasis on population education as a potential vehicle to translate the population policy into action. Also, among health and educational professionals in Nigeria the feeling is widespread that the health of the adolescents is at risk. This burgeoning adolescent group who constitute more than 12 per cent of the population of Nigeria and whose number are expected to rise sharply over the years are often prone to unplanned sex, unwanted sex, unsafe abortion, sexual coercion, sexual violence, sexually transmitted infections and even HIV because they are uninformed, or poorly informed, about the implications of their reproductive behaviour and health risks especially from under-age sexual practices and other anti-social practices. Over the years, the federal government, donor agencies and non-governmental agencies have put forward initiatives to address population problems and issues. The Federal Ministry of Education and the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) have been involved in curriculum and instructional package development and teacher training for school-based population and family-life programmes.
Drawing from practical experiences, the Directors of National Education Programmes in African countries drew up general principles upon which African population and family life education programmes was based, as follows:
The contribution which population education can bring to the socioeconomic development of the community and the nation;
The importance of both individual decision-making on population matters, and the role of the family in collective decision making
The importance of understanding the social and cultural context in which population education contents are to be integrated;
The fact that low rates of school enrolment and high rates of drop-outs should lead to greater recognition of out-of-school programmes; and
The need to sensitise the decision-makers in Africa on their countries' population situation and problems (UNESCO, 1985).
Udo and Viederman (1979) argued that the definition of population education should include components such as:
Population education as a part of a total social learning process which can assist learners to better regulate their lives and their environment.
Population education, being a problem-centred process, could enable learners to define their own and their communities' population-related problems.
Population education is concerned uniquely with the population interactions and inter- relationships between the individual and the communities in which he\she lives.
Population education is oriented towards the improvement of the quality of life of both individuals and the society, both now and in the future.
Given these principles, a general definition of population education was formulated as an educational programme designed to create awareness and understanding of population issues directly related to social, economic and cultural development of the individual, the family and the nation; to enable informed decision-making on population matters in order to contribute more effectively towards the amelioration of socio-economic and cultural welfare of the individual, the family and the nation (UNESCO, 1985).
The development of sexuality education and its introduction in Nigerian schools came about when it became apparent that there was, as there is, an urgent need to address adolescents’ reproductive health, reproductive rights and sexuality issues. The need to prepare the adolescents for their adulthood roles that conform to contemporary life styles has become paramount and success was seen to depend greatly on basic education and information on health care and positive relationships provided the adolescents. In tune with Karolina Widerstorm, such education could empower young women to have a greater control over their sexuality and reproduction to the benefit of social and economic aspects of their lives. It also has the potential to respond to overall life situation of the adolescents, address their holistic well-being and help them achieve their full potential. The success of the efforts to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria lies in strong political support and the continued strong commitment, team work and skillfulness of prevention teams of donor agencies, NGOS and projects such as The Vision Project and the African Regional Sexuality Resource Centre housed under the Action Health Incorporated in Nigeria. In recent times, the Action Health Incorporated (AHI) has been in the frontline of NGOs complementing government’s efforts in raising awareness about adolescent health issues and setting a new direction for adolescent sexuality education in Nigeria by building on lessons from the past success and constraints, and appreciating the present potentials of sexuality education in strengthening national development efforts for a brighter future. AHI has viewed sexuality education as an educational process which provides for an articulated and practical study of the various dimensions of human sexuality with the aim of developing in the individual a more rational attitude and responsible behaviour towards improving the quality of life of the individual now and in the future. To borrow the words of International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) it is, “an education process designed to assist young people in their physical, social, emotional and moral development as they prepare for adulthood, marriage, parenthood and ageing, as well as their social relationship in the socio-cultural context of family and society” (IPPF, 1987).
A cursory review of these principles and definitions demonstrates in clear terms the relationship between Population Education and Sexuality Education. Although the objectives of the two concepts are basically to create awareness and promote understanding of population issues directly related to social, economic and cultural development, sexuality education seeks further to promote proper development of personality through the acquisition of factual knowledge.
The rationale for sexuality education includes;
1. Taking responsibility for sexual health
2. Building new morality and removing falsity among people
3. Preparing adolescents for adulthood roles
4. Helping adolescents to achieve their full potentials
5. Providing sexual knowledge that can serve as weapon against ignorance.
2.2.4 Content of Sexuality Education
Traditionally, sexuality education drew its content from social demography, human ecology, family life and sex education. Details of these contents and the areas of emphasis varied between, and sometimes within, countries in response to the particular requirements of individual cultures and population situations. In most cases, sexuality concepts were basically meant to prevent early pregnancy and disease.
At the beginning, there were difficulties in determining the content of sexuality education, the way it could be adopted and how it could be taught Selection and presentation of contents relating to sexual behaviour posed great problems. Although sex education is generally considered as important, a number of its content areas were highly controversial and turbulent whenever they were associated with cultural and religious issues.
In order to apply the most useful concept of sex education to sexuality education, some countries embraced the participatory approach, others chose rotary methods whereby learners were expected to memorise the facts in the hope that it would in some ways lead to behaviour change. Conscious efforts were made to exclude sexual/sensual matters hence the concept of sexuality was used as a broad knowledge base to provide contents for sexuality education. Issues such as homosexuality, contraception and abortion were potentially inflammatory and were kept away.
The practical experience countries have had in introducing sexuality education is leading to a new way of perceiving sexual contents and their appropriateness, just as the upsurge of adolescents’ health problems in Nigeria has led to a new way of perceiving adolescents’ reproductive health information in the country.
Given the interactive nature of the subject of sexuality, its content ranges from;
Human growth and development,
Relationships,
Life skills,
Sexual attitude and behaviour,
Sexual health,
Society and culture.
Each of these content areas has its various sub-divisions. It is worthwhile to note that, although other intervention programmes such as population education, environmental education, and family life education share some important contents (as in sex education), sexuality education is a different field. Its conceptualization corresponds to sexuality issues and problems and it is meant to contribute to their solution. Therefore, the contents of sexuality education respond to the specific sexuality needs that emerge from population issues such as the adolescent sexual health problems and problems of acculturation that are plaguing Nigeria today. Sexuality education in Nigeria is a huge task, though it has many prospect, it also faces many challenges.
2.2.5 Communication and Sexuality
Communication can simply be defined as an act of transmitting and receiving messages. One of the most important elements for living in a society is communication or language because it provides the society with a means of socialising its members and a mechanism for role-taking and role-playing. Communication can be verbal or non-verbal, and involves a lot of negotiations between the sender and the receiver. Our personality traits can easily be determined, most of the time, through the ways we communicate. The way we talk or walk, our facial expressions and our other body gestures are different ways by which we communicate. That is why it is generally easy to differentiate an extrovert from an introvert (Adepoju, 2005). Our communication style may lead to a sexual or non-sexual relationship.
Effective sexual communication has remained difficult, elusive and almost unattainable in Nigeria. This has remained a great constraint against the effective implementation of sexuality education in Nigeria because free, open and relaxed communication about sexual topics between adults and the youth (particularly parents and children) have been left to only specific occasions such as traditional initiation ceremonies that alert boys of their coming of age and girls of their readiness for marriage and procreation. Little or no reference is made to reproductive health and/or reproductive rights. Most of the time Nigerian children resort to books, films etc to learn sexual communication only to be criticised by the adult populace; this act of criticism makes the youth feel threatened and sometimes impairs their ability to function normally. Criticism has been known to affect sexuality with regards to sexual functioning and denigration of self esteem. It is therefore imperative that criticism, when given, should be constructive and non-destructive.
For criticism to be effective, the environment, time and attention are pertinent. There is also a need for positive approach, specificity of the situation and awareness of limitations of the person being criticised. On receiving criticism, non-defensive attitude should be adopted with less justification of actions and understanding and appreciation of the criticism. It is a well known fact that the ability to give and receive criticism is difficult but specific suggestions should lead to actual change. In this vein, the sexuality education teaches the youths how to open up their relationship to discussion of problems, how to foster a style of communication that will enhance all aspects of their relationship and enable them to discuss freely matters that bother them through free expression of their emotions and behaviour. This is one of the great gains of sexuality education.
2.2.6 Information and Sexual Well-Being
One of the major concerns of sexuality education in Nigeria is the sexual health and well-being of its populace, particularly the youth. Ample research findings have revealed that, sexual activities (especially among teenagers) are on the increase globally. Emergence of new cultures has led to acculturation and a redefinition of ‘sex’ among the youth (Adepoju, 2001). Sexual matters have become permissive and liberal among members due to exposure to media both foreign and local and the abandonment of important traditional virtues. It is therefore believed that, knowledge that wanton sexual activities with multiple partners can result in unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, HIV/AIDS and even death, can contribute to the practice of safer sexual behaviour among the youth. In Nigeria, young persons’ inability to access sexuality information either through the home or school has contributed immensely to high prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases and other adolescents’ sexuality problems. Sexuality education in Nigeria is about providing vital information on reproductive health needs of the adolescent in relation to the inculcation of good practices and reinforcement of values and group norms against unprotected sexual behaviour. Whether this information is accurately provided by the various institutions is another challenge for sexuality education in Nigeria.


2.2.7 Media and Sexuality
Ellis (1998) asserts that, “society depends on persuasion”. Children are persuaded daily by parents to accept certain forms of lifestyles; advertisements are created by producers to make people spend money; politicians persuade people to vote for them; while individuals persuade each other to remain in friendship, be it conjugal or platonic.
According to an estimate by the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA), more than twenty million people are exposed to their commercials every day. Many writers and speakers discretely or pointedly enter individuals’ lives through radio, magazines, books, brochures and so on, leaving the individual with many choices about what to do, what to buy and who to be.
Most of the time, the media, whether audio, print or visual, has been blamed for affecting the minds of people negatively with very little potential of creating positive change in them. The media poses a great challenge to sexuality education in the sense that it does not necessarily complement the tenets of sexuality education because sexuality messages by the media cannot be devout of selfish interest and propaganda. Such messages could easily be seen as mere entertainment thereby restraining the potential to impart accurate information about sexual problems.
2.2.8 Radio
Radio is a widely used mass communication medium and it has a great potentiality in dissemination of information. According to an online report; there are more than 343 radio stations in Nigeria including more than 45 internet radio (Wikipedia.com). About 97 percent of the population is reached by the radio. Radio, being a convenient form of entertainment, caters to a large audience. With the invention of transistors this medium has reached the common man in urban and rural areas in Nigeria.
It has advantages over the other mass media like television and newspapers in terms of being handy, portable, easily accessible and cheap, that is to say, radio is supplemental. As the media are part of the lives of many people (Burke 1999), they can give a basis for public discussion and the reconsidering of norms. Studies show that the media can have an immense educating impact on the public opinion and behaviour (Burke 1999).
As stated earlier, the radio as a media of mass communication is noted to be a veritable tool in campaigning for behavioural change; this is termed the mobilisation role or function of the mass media. In this light, Okunna (1994) speaks of the media as a vehicle used for involving people, facilitating public debate and reaching a consensus on important matter. Noting further the relevance of the media in motivating and mobilising people, Orlu-Orlu (2013) posits that the media motivate and sensitise people toward societal goals.
In carrying out its educational function, people do learn a thing or two from the mass media (radio inclusive) either consciously or unconsciously, this is where the radio comes in, sex education can be carried out via the radio, either deliberately in form of live programmes, talk shows, debates etc