Literature Review On Women constitute an integral segment of the Nigerian population.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter provides a review of the
relevant literature used in the course of carrying out this study. It also
presents the theoretical framework upon which this research is based.
2.1 Theoretical
framework
According to Halloran (2000), a good
theory is the most practical and useful tool at the researcher’s disposal. He
further states that a good theory provides the researcher with guidelines and
suggests directions the research should follow, and also the questions to be
asked. The relevance of theories in this research cannot be overemphasized,
because it provides a platform for analysis and hypothesis testing, which is
essential to any research work.
This study, therefore, is centered on
the use of the agenda setting theory and functionalist theory.
2.1.1 Agenda Setting Theory
This theory was propounded by Maxwell
McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1992. It states that the media is extremely
successful in telling people what to think about. The media tells people what
to be considered important. Klapper (1960) as cited by in Udo Udo (2013), says
people are not directly influenced by mass communication, but that people’s
predispositions are reinforced by mass communication.
Sheufele and Tewksbury (2007) as cited
in Nwachukwu, Asak and Asadu (2013) said that there is a strong correlation
between the emphasis that mass media place on certain issues and the importance
attributed to these issues by mass audiences. People are strongly affected by
what they view or listen to frequently on broadcast media, and consider these
information to be important.
Therefore, Broadcast media has the
power to condition how people understand an issue. This means that by throwing
more light and emphasis on an issue, it gains more impact, hence, affecting the
audience immensely.
The agenda setting theory justifies
this study in that, the broadcast media is largely responsible for motivating
women to participate more in politics. They also serve as agents of change and
could encourage the government to pave the way for women in politics, and
reject the stereotyped belief that a woman’s place is in the kitchen.
The more emphasis the broadcast media
places on the issue of gender equality in politics, the bigger the impact on
Nigerians as a whole. This is because broadcast media, unlike print media, has
a larger and more heterogeneous audience, a good number of whom are women. The
level of importance placed on motivating these women in politics through the
power of broadcast media determines its effect on government and society as a
whole. It is now evident that the agenda-setting theory provides a solid
foundation on which this study is built, as it specifically points at the
indispensable place of the media in influencing and supporting the active
participation of women in politics.
2.1.2 Functionalist theory
This theory traces its origin from
Harold Lasswell and Charles Wright in 1948 and 1960 respectively. It states
that the mass media serves many functions for the society. The five elements
the theorists put together describe the audience’s use of the media.They include;Surveillance,Correlation,mobilization,Cultural
transmission and entertainment. The elements that are in relation to this study
will be discussed below;
a. Surveillance:
This means that the media provides news and information and keep up a
surveillance of all the happenings in the world. The media also creates
awareness on a variety of national issues, among which is the
under-representation of women in political positions. Broadcast media, above
print media, possesses on overwhelming and encompassing power to highlight an
issue and gain wide-spread recognition. This places them with the
responsibility to function better as the eye and ear of society, bringing to
light information that will help to faster national and economic development.
The issues of sexism and stereotypical beliefs towards women have been
addressed severally on various broadcast media platforms, therefore, they play
a major role in the mobilization of Nigerian women for leadership positions in
politics.
b. Correlation.
This relates to how the media’s selection of certain news and its
interpretation affects how society understands and responds to it. People’s
attitudes towards political issues, events, public policy etc are influenced to
an extent by how the media frames and presents the issue in their discussions
and presentation. Therefore, in relation to this study, women and society in
general are directly influenced by the degree of importance placed on an issue
by the broadcast media. This means that if broadcast media continually supports
the cause of women to participate actively in politics, its impact will be made
on women and progress will be effected towards the mobilization and motivation
of women for political positions..
c. Mobilization:
This is the media’s function of promoting society’s interest. Broadcast media,
is a platform of articulating ideas and issues to the society. it is the
vehicle on which national issues are addressed, redressed and tackled .
Broadcast media serves as link between government and society; therefore they are
responsible for the rallying of Nigerian women towards active participation for
leadership positions in politics. They perform the role of mobilization,
integration and motivation of women in the political scene. By so doing, these
women are educated on the need to rise above cultural and stereotypical
barriers and set a landmark for themselves, hence bridging the gap between men
and women in politics.
2.2 Conceptual
review
2.2.1 Women in Pre-Colonial Era
in Nigeria
In
most British colonies, drawing from Nigeria, Steans (1998), observes that the
masculinity of politics was largely as a result of colonial influence as, prior
to the colonization of such countries, there were political structures that
allowed for the sharing of power between women and men. For instance in
Nigeria, women have always had significant political roles in their
communities.
In
the pre-colonial times in Nigeria, women were warriors, traders etc. They had
important roles in the administration of their various communities and were
involved in policy–making. According to
Olojede (1990), “women in pre-colonial Nigeria were not entirely powerless as
erroneously perceived” (p.82). Women had
access to political participation through a complex and sophisticated network
of relationships, rights and control of recourses. In some societies, women
shared equal powers as men.
Dawood (1992) talked about the
overwhelming contributions which women have made in the past. Oganwu (1992)
posited that Nigeria seems to have been particularly blessed with women who
could found and build societies. Among the founders of communities that are now large segments of the present day
Nigeria were the legendary inkpi, moremi and Daura ( associated respectively with lgala-land,
Yoruba-land and Hausa-land respectively).
Oganwu (1993) further stated that
women like Omu Okwei and Iyalade
Efunsetan wielded great influences, even commanding armies in their
states. In areas of intellectual and thoughts were found women such as Nana
Asmalu of Sokoto.
One must not forget the legendary
Queen Amina of Zazzau, who played very significant roles in the political
history of the ancient Zaria. A lot of women, despite all odds have been
contributing actively to the struggle of politics since the pre-colonial era.
It is apparent that a woman could work
beside a man in the wide circles of politics and do a fantastic job of it.
However, when the colonial masters
started ruling Nigeria with their gender ideology of separate spheres for women
and men, this historically marked the beginning of restriction of women to the
private sphere. Politically, the position of women took a bad turn. “Women were
marginalized with the introduction of native administration to the neglect of
women” (Olojede, 1990, p.85). This arrangement brought about by colonialism
dismantled existing political structures and imposed a gendered divide between
the (masculine) public sphere and the (feminized) private sphere. Charlton et
al (1989) captures it thus, “Colonialism drew the boundaries between the public
and private spheres in ways that allowed colonial administrators, missionaries
and native authorities to vest men with control over female labor and
sexuality.”(p.16)
Some argue that the 19th
century Jihad and the Islamizing of Hausa protectorate, for instance, led to
the seclusion of women, which curtailed their involvement in the polity, but
Olojede (1990) asserts that, “the harem organization was not a constraint on
women’s political participation” (p.79). Thus, colonialism could be said to
have had enormous impact on the restriction of women to the private sphere. Low
level of education and economic problems also account for the low levels of
women’s participation in government.
In spite of the gender imbalance of
politics, political parties during the nationalist movement featured women. The
roll call of women who participated in the fight for independence include:
Margaret Ekpo, Sawaba Gambo, Funmilaayo Ransom Kuti, Elizabeth Adegoke, Janet
Mokelu, Wurarola Esan. Kesiah Fashioner, Ekpo Young, Mary Ededem, Flora
Azikiwe, Faderera Akintola, Hannah Awolowo, and several others (Irukwu, 1994).
Politically, the nationalist struggles
for independence are good examples where the media was used to promote
democracy and self-determination in many countries that were under colonial
rule. The media often played the decisive role in mobilization . During the
colonial period in Nigeria, the media was used to fight for independence. For
instance, the Rev Henry Townsend in 1859 established the first newspaper ever
in Nigeria called Iwe Irohin. The goal was to get people to read, to beget the
habit of seeking information by reading. (Uche 1989, p.93).
Thus, broadcast media played catalytic
roles in sensitizing the people, criticizing the colonists and setting the
agenda for political development which provoked normative changes in the
patterns of people’s beliefs and values. Hence, it can be said that broadcast
serves functions of political articulation, mobilization and conflict management.
It sets much of the agenda for political debate, and is partly responsible for
determining which political demands in society will be aired and which will be
relatively muted.
2.2.2 Early Female Politicians
and their Achievements
The formation of political parties in
Nigeria in the 1930’s and 1940’s attracted the entry of some women into
politics. The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was formed in 1923 and
was led by Herbert McCauley. The national council of Nigeria and Cameroon
(NCNC) came into existence in 1944. Margaret Ekpo identified with the NCNC in
1945. For a long time, Margaret Ekporemained the only female voice that was
heard during political rallies in the then Eastern Religion. Margaret, Ekpo,
alongside others like Jaja Nwachukwu, S.O Masi, Iwuna and Bell Cram organized a
rally at Aba to whip up sentiments against colonialism. Following Margaret
Ekpo’s inflammatory statements, she was arrested and instigated the people
against the British colonial administration. This led to the setting up of the
Fitzgerald commission to investigate into the colliery shooting of the miners
who agitated against workers alienation and poor salary and remuneration (Jaja,
1982).
Other early birds in the history of
women participation in Nigerian politics include; Funmilayo Ransom Kuti (a
member of the Western House of chiefs in the early 1950’s), Janet Mokelu (a
member of the Easton House of Assembly in the early 1960’s, Ekpo young (also a
member of the Eastern House of Assembly in the early 1960’s) and Wurarola Esan
(the first female senator in Nigeria in the early 1960s’) among others. In
Western Nigeria, Abeokuta women took active interest in political actions. The
introduction of the sole Native Authority (SNA) system and subsequent taxation
system led to the formation of the Abeokuta ladies club (ALC) which in 1946
metamorphosed into Abeokuta women’s Union (AWU). Ransom Kuti used this
socio-political organization to mobilize women and fight for their rights.
In 1954 Margaret Ekpo was appointed a
chief with a seat in the Eastern house of chief to represent the interest of
women.
2.2.3 Nigerian women and politics in the new era
As Remi Anifowose (1992) rightly
stated; women constitute half of the world’s population and have contributed
significantly to the well being of the human race.
Afolabi (2003) added that women
contribute in vital ways to societal development generally. In our society,
most women assume five key roles: mother, producer, home manager, community
organizers and socio-cultural and political
activists. Of these roles, the last has been engendered by historical gender
discrimination and equality.
As Whitehead (1991), aptly stated, the
exclusion of women in development policy is a major source of failure or lack
of satisfactory result in development efforts.
Referring to the scriptures, Galatians
3:28 reads; “there is neither Jew nor gentile, slave nor free, there is neither
male nor female; for you all are one in Christ Jesus”. This goes to show that,
even in the eyes of our creator, we are all equals.
Today, we exist in modern day,
democratic Nigeria. Are women still actively representing in the political
scene and have the numbers increased since the pre-colonial era? The answer is
yes.
It is true that more and more women
are rising up to the challenge and competing amongst men in the high ranks of
politics, but it is sad to note that, even with the speed of the evolving
world, Nigerian women are still under-represented in the world of politics. The
notion that women are the weaker sex still hovers over the political leaders
and government. As a matter of fact, women are not only underrepresented in all
top-level government positions, but they also encounter additional difficulties
even where they hold political positions. There is also the assumption that
women sleep around to get political positions, which has tainted the image of
women in general.
Over the years, a good number of women
have made quite an achievement in the political positions they held and these
women, are still aiming higher as time goes on.
Some of these women are; Hon. Rose
Okoh Ogoji, Senator for Cross River North senatorial district under the
platforms of PDP, Hon Uche Lilian Ekwunife, Senator elect for Anambra central
senatorial district; Hon Monusurat Sunmonu, Former Speaker of Oyo State House
of Assembly, presently the senator-elect of the Oyo Central senatorial
district; Sen. Esther Nenadi Usman, who has held numerous political positions;
Hon. Binta Mercy Masi Garba, the only female senator-elect in all the 19
Northern States of Nigeria; Sen. Nkechi Nwaogu, Senator Gbemisola Ruqquayat
Saraki, Senator Aisha Alhassan, Pauline Kedem Tallen (the only woman to be
deputy governor in Northern Nigeria) and Dr. Sarah Nnazwa Jibril, who is the
first woman in the history of Nigerian politics to aim for the presidential seat, and on two occasions.
Also,there are some female deputy governors such as Dr. Mrs. Ipalibo Banigo of Rivers state.
Also, other influential women like
Mrs. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Former Minister of finance, Oby Ezekwesili of due
process fame, and Late Prof. Dora Akunyili, former Minister of Information and
Director of NAFDAC, have, in their respective fields, made a landmark in
Nigerian politics.
Sadly, this does not change the fact
that women are still poorly represented in politics. Despite the National
Gender Policy’s promise for women to occupy 35% of elective positions in
Nigeria, it is disappointing that, presently, out of 109 senators, only 8 are
women; in the House or Representatives, there is only one female principal
officer, and only 24, out of 362 members are women.
Finally, there is no doubt that some
women have used their positions to pilfer money and aid corruption, but, so
have their male counterparts. Hence, what matters is not the gender of the
person, but the intellectual ability and capability to lead diligently and
honestly.
2.2.4 Misconception of women in the society
According to Winner (1987), there is
the belief that men are more important than women or are far too sophisticated,
more significant and more valuable than women. More interesting is the value
that justifies the idea that it is more important for a man, the breadwinner to
have a job or a promotion, than a woman, more important for a man to be paid well,
more important for a man to have an education and in general to have preference
over a woman. It is the basis of the feeling by men that if women enter a
particular occupation, they will degrade it and that men must leave or be
themselves degraded, and the feeling by women is that they can raise the
prestige of their professions by recruiting men, which they can only do by
giving them the better jobs. From this value comes the attitude that a husband
must earn more than his wife or suffer a loss of personal status and that a
wife must subsume her interests to his or be socially castigated. From this
value comes the practice of rewarding men for serving in the armed forces and
punishing women for having other female children. The core theme of women misconception
is that men do the important job in the world and the work done by men is what
is paramount.
The other misconception is that women
are here for the pleasure and assistance of men. This is what is implied when
women are told that their role is complementary to that of men; that they
should fulfill their natural ‘feminine’ functions; that they are ‘different’
from men and should not compete with them. From this belief comes the attitude that women are and should
be dependent on men, for everything but especially their identities, the social
definition of who they are. It defines the few roles for which women are
socially rewarded -wife, mother and mistress, all of which are pleasing or
beneficial to men, and leads directly to the pedestral theory which extols
women who stay in their place as good help-mates to men.
Winner (1987: p.78) further posits
that, it is this attitude that stigmatized women who are not married or who do
not devote their primary energies to the care of men and their children.
Association with a man is the basic criterion for participation by women in
this society and one who does not seek her identity through a man is a threat
to the social values. It is similarly this attitude which causes women’s
liberation activists to be labeled as man haters for exposing the nature of
feminism. People feel that a woman not devoted to looking after men must act
this way because of hatred or inability to ‘catch’ one. Also, there is the
assumption that women’s identities are
defined by their relationship to men and their social value by that of the men
they are related to.
All of these misconceptions are accepted as normal and justified with
little question. People have been influenced
to follow tradition and continually degrade the womenfolk. This
situation can be dated back to the sudden onslaught of World War II which
radically changed the whole structure of social relationships as well as the
economy. Men were drafted into the army and women into the labour force. Now
desperately needed, women’s wants were provided for as were those of the boys
on the front. Federal financing of day care centers in the form of the Landham
Act passed congress in a record, and two weeks-special crash training
programmes were provided for the new female workers to give them skills they
were not previously thought capable of exercising. Women instantly assumed
positions of authority and responsibility unavailable only the year before. But
what happened when the war ended? Both men and women had heeded their country’s
call to duty to bring it to a successful conclusion. Yet men were rewarded for
their efforts and women punished for theirs. The returning soldiers were given
the veteran benefits as well as their jobs back and a disproportionate share of
the new ones crested by the war economy. Women, on the other hand, saw their
child care centers dismantled and their training programmes ceased. Is it any
wonder that their place became the kitchen? Where else could they go? Moffat et
al. (1995).
What of those women who have succeeded
in casting off the shackles of oppression?
the women’s liberation movement tend to be championed by its adaptors
and ignored, ridiculed or overlooked by
a majority of the general population.
2.2.5 Barriers
to the full and active participation of women in
political positions
In spite of the fact that the platform
for action signed during the UN Fourth World conference on women advocated the
elimination of all forms of discrimination against women, the historical,
cultural, social and socio-economic positions of women are characterized by
different forms of discrimination and exclusionary practices at all levels.
In
1999, the United Nations WomenWatch hosted Women-power annual conference in
Australia. At the end of the seating, from the reports given by women from
different parts of the world, the working group came out with a summary of the
various obstacles to women’s access to power and to taking on roles in
decision-making bodies. The points were summed up as limited perceptions and
attitudes towards women’s roles in society held by men and women alike,
economic standing and education.
In Nigeria, Nwankwo (p57) enumerated
the following obstacles, lack of education for women, African cultural barriers
against women’s visibility, the poor socio-economic background of many African
women and the political system that is male-dominated. In addition Onibokun,
Kumuyi and Akinsete (1995) found women’s attitude of inferiority and legal
inhibitions, to be major barriers to active participation in politics.
It could, therefore, be surmised that
the factors that contribute to the exclusion of women from political positions
include:
1. Lack
of good family background and support: Naturally the early development and
socialization of the child takes place first of all in the family. This
accounts for why Beebe and Masterson (1986) said that the “family unit is the
single most important unit of society. stressing the importance of family in
the socialization and identity formation of young people and women particular,
They also affirmed that, “the family is the setting in which we become who we
are the development of self-concept is to a great extent the result of our
interactions with others, beginning in the family” (p.57).
This
supports the notion that the social self of an individual is first formed in
the family. The social self, according to Beebe and Masterson (1986), is the
way we view ourselves in relationship to all of the others to whom we interact
(p.71).
Therefore,
the family is crucial to the all round development of a child, male or female.
However, the extent to which women receive encouragement and motivation towards
rising above gender inequality from the family influences them for the rest of
their adult life. In Africa, the general belief that women are mere
subordinates to men and therefore perform only specific roles has its origin
from the family. Because of this, females from the ancient times, have been
treated with a sort of indifference and unimportance. Usually, the birth of a
female child was not with met with as much enthusiasm as that of her male
counterpart. Growing up, she quickly learned that her only role in life is to
be a subordinate to her husband. In this stereotyped role, she was required to
bear his children, raise them, and avoid any form of attitude that even merely
hints at disrespect to her superior, the man. She would endure all manners of
degradation and always relegate herself to the background, only to be seen when
summoned. In light of this, it is no surprise that women became characterized
by feelings of inferiority and lack of confidence.
2. Lack of formal education: According to a 1998
study by UNESCO, although the gender gap in primary and secondary school is
closing, women still lag behind men in many countries of Africa. In virtually
every country where illiteracy is high, women are more likely to be illiterate
than men ( p.74).
It
is unfortunate that, as a result of poverty, several families in Africa cannot
afford to educate all their children. Therefore, boys are given the preference
since it is believed that girls will eventually get married and create their
own families while boys will continue the lineage. Although, in the steadily
evolving world, the literacy rate of Nigerian women is growing, it still has
not reached its desired peak as it is with other prominent countries of the
world.
Education
is a potent instrument in the socialization process which transmits culture and
moulds human beings, suggestion that what happens in schools will affect future
leadership roles of women.
In
Nigeria, there has been a noticeable change in the attitude towards women’s
education as women are now being found in virtually all professions such as
medicine, law, teaching, architecture and engineering. However one cannot say
the same for leadership positions in politics.
Finally,
lack of formal education stunts the growth of women in politics because it
prevents them from acquiring knowledge needed for their advancement to
political positions. Although, even education, as important as it may be, may
not ensure women’s access to positions of decision-making in politics.
3. The
problem of discrimination against women at all levels: Discrimination against
women, according to Article 1 of the United Nation’s convention on the
elimination of all forms of discrimination against women of 1979 (UN-CEDAW) is
defined as
“Any
distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex, which has the
effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or
exercise of women, irrespective of their marital status, from human rights and
fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any
other field.
Therefore, discrimination dictates
patterns of structural inequality which are maintained by rules, norms, and
procedures that cast women in a subordinate role. This has long been classified
as ‘normal’ and ‘natural’.
Some scholars argue that women are
discriminated against mainly because of their sex, that is, they are considered
the weaker sex. Adepoju et al, emphasizing on the issue, argued that
discrimination is to still prevalent.
Nigerian women had to fight for half a
century to get education, and the right to enter at least some professions.
Yet, even up till this moment, they still have to face gross discrimination,
not only in political positions, but in all top-level professional positions.
This has formed the basis for the exclusion of women from leadership positions.
The origin theories of Eagly and Wood made
it clear that the cause of discrimination against women is principally as a
result of “Sex differences in human behavior”. This study consists of two types
of origin theories. Evolved psychological dispositions and social structure. In
the origin theory proposed by evolutionary psychologists, the critical causal
arrow points from social structure to psychological sex differences. This means
that because men and women tend to occupy different social roles, they became
psychologically different in ways that adjust them to these roles.
Colwill(1995) referred to this as the
problem of “sex differences” and Kolb(p.379) said it is the “obstacle of
biological sex”. Buzzanell (1995,p.30) called it the “equality-versus-difference
arguments”, Reskin and McBrier(2000,p.210) named it “sex labels” and Harrison
and Williams(2002,p.19) referred to it as “a doctrine of natural differences”.
All these standpoints according to these authors, are the underlying cause of
all forms of discrimination against women.
2.2.6 Broadcast media in Nigeria
The term “broadcast media” simply
means the process of communicating or transmitting signals, messages, or
content, such as audio or video programming to a wide heterogeneous audience,
using television and radio.
Media in Nigeria has a long history
compared to other African nations. Radio began with the introduction of the
Radio Distribution system in the year 1933 in Lagos by the British colonial
government under the Department of Post and Telegraphs (P&T). Through a bill
by the House of representatives, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC)
was established in 1956 and they took up the responsibilities of radio
broadcast in Nigeria. Later NBC was reorganized to become Federal Radio
Corporation of Nigerian (FRCN) which was established in 1978. Then the Voice of
Nigeria (VON) was established in 1990.
Today, radio broadcasting in Nigeria
has evolved, spreading fast across the length and breadth of the nation. Every
state owns and operates at least one radio station. The advent of television in
Nigeria followed a similar pattern to radio. However, it was established by the
western region on 11 October, 1959. Nigeria is the first country to introduce
television broadcasting in Africa, above other prominent African countries.
Nigeria also has the largest terrestrial television network in Africa, the
Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) with over 96 stations scattered around the
country.
Today, there are over 80 Federal
Government controlled national and state television stations and roughly forty
(40) state government-owned radio stations who typically carry out their own
programs except for news broadcasts. There is also a wide network of over three
hundred national, regional, state and private radio stations, altogether.
From the above, it is apparent that
broadcast media, when used right, has an overwhelming influence on its
audience.
Basically, the broadcast media are
described as performing three major functions; information, education and
entertainment. It could be said that through educating, informing and
entertaining, the broadcast media make the government and nation as a whole
aware of the importance and need to undertake certain processes of change that
would lead to national development.
In a nutshell, broadcast media can
influence our knowledge, behavior, attitude, emotions and political views. It
plays a vital role in any society and ours is no exception.
2.2.7 Challenges faced by broadcast
media in motivating women
for leadership positions in politics in Nigeria
Broadcast media in Nigeria performs a
number of functions which serve to benefit every member of the society. They
play the role of society’s watchdog, working hand in hand with government to
disseminate information that would motivate, mobilize, integrate, educate,
advertise and promote national unity.
However, there are some challenges on
the part of broadcast media that has
stumped the actualization of this noble dream. Suffice it to say that the
Nigerian broadcast media has been enslaved to the whims and caprices of the
political leaders and the government.
Women’s issues have always been a fragile topic,
especially in terms of political participation and gender equality. Broadcast
media, could make more impact in motivating Nigerian women for leadership positions in politics, but certain
factors have impeded its progress, and the rate of female participation in
politics is still dwindling. Here are some of the factors:
a. Lack of effort from the Nigerian
government: Nwabueze (1992) noted that a democratic
government is predicated upon freedom, justice and equal treatment of all
citizens, men and women alike, by the society. This, according to Sodars (2001)
is because democracy presupposes equal opportunity, platform for political participation
and decision making, while Anifowose(2004) asserts that since equal political
participation is sin qua non to democracy, a society cannot fully be
democratized without the full and active participation of women who constitute
about 50% of the population of each country.
Nigeria
is a democratic nation yet it is disappointing to say that the government ranks
poorly in the issue of female participation in politics. More disappointing is
the fact that apart from the high rate
of corruption, unemployment poverty and
insecurity that plagues the country in the present Muhammadu Buhari regime, the president appointed only
six women as ministers, surrounded by numerous, older, seemingly wiser men. As
a matter of fact, we are yet to boast of a female governor in any of the 36
states of Nigeria.
On
assuming the seat of head of state, President Muhammadu Buhari refused to
acknowledge the position of ‘first lady’, that should have been given to his
wife. This was the first step to realizing how disinterested the present
government is in championing the cause of Nigerian women in politics.
Furthermore, recently, the president made a remark thus; “ I don’t know which
party my wife belongs to but she belongs to my kitchen, and my living room, and
the other room”. This demeaning statement has only served to cast a bad
reflection, not only on the first family of the nation, but on the nation as a
whole.
In
spite of these, broadcast media in Nigeria has sought to continually motivate
women for leadership positions, and over the years, they have made remarkable
impact but the question remains; if the present government is not interested in
heralding the cause of women in politics, how then can the broadcast media
effectively achieve the goal of motivating women for leadership positions in
politics?
There
is no impressive effort from the government towards gender equality in
politics, and sexism remains a disturbing issue. Because of these, the efforts
of broadcast media in motivating these women has not been effectively
recognised.
b. Apathy
and indifference from Nigerian women towards politics: Obafemi (2006)
argued that inspite of the universal declaration of human rights and the United
Nation’s recommendation and government policy on women, the response of women in
active political participation in Nigeria remains tepid and non-aggressive,
especially in elective (political) positions in various tiers of governance.
Most women have not taken persuasive partisan steps to control political power at the level of the
presidency in this country.
It
is sad that Nigerian women do not enjoy equal rights as in their male
counterparts, even in the 21st century, even though Nwammu (2012)
argued that prior to the 21st century, most Nigerian women tended to
be indifferent towards politics. True, there has been a slight change in the 21st
century as more and more women are becoming actively involved in politics and
some women bodies such as women in Nigeria (WIN) have been established. Yet,
the rate of women actively involved in politics compared to the rate of women
in Nigeria is alarmingly low. This is because a lack of equal opportunity from
the Nigerian government towards politics has resulted in apathy and
indifference amongst Nigerian women. They seem to perceive themselves as merely
objects of subordination.
In
the present regime, the voice of the women have been subdued. Even with the
efforts of broadcast media in reaching out to these women, they have remained
apathetic towards politics because, one word lingers in their hearts, defeat.
Therefore, this is another obstacle in
the motivation of women for leadership positions in politics by the broadcast
media. To some women, politics is still seen as the exclusive, preserve of the
men folk. Also women’s perception of politics as a dirty game and fright at the
thought of violence has further alienated them.
c. Illiteracy:
Even in the 21st century, illiteracy amongst Nigerians is still
prevalent. In some parts, women are still not allowed to acquire western
education, which would liberate them from the clutches of obnoxious custom,
tradition and religion. Because the woman, unlike the man, was assigned
specific roles from childhood; to marry and bear children. She was constantly
denied education, which is the fundamental right of every human being.
According to the national bureau of statistics, adult illiteracy rate in
Nigeria stands at 56.9%. This means that about 70% of Nigerians are
illiterates.
This situation is rather disturbing, it
also infringes on the efforts of the broadcast media in motivating Nigerian
women for leadership position in politics. In spite of the fact that broadcast
media, through its audio-visual nature, can sometimes cut through the barrier
of illiteracy, it is quite difficult when it comes to women and politics, which requires the attention of
more literate women and Nigerians as a whole, to get a clear and concise view
of what politics is all about. Therefore until the issue of illiteracy in
Nigeria is tackled, the efforts of broadcast media in sensitizing the women
towards political goals would be slowed.
2.2.8 Broadcast media and its impact in motivating women
for leadership positions in politics
The Nigerian broadcast media has
played vital roles in supporting women in the political struggle. Radio and
television are one of the most effective means of communication because a
majority of Nigerians have access to either a radio, television or even both.
The fundamental roles of broadcast media is to reflect and shape opinions,
thus, playing active roles in public attitude formation. In light of this, one
cannot neglect the enormous powers of broadcast media as a result of the vast
communication skills it possesses.
McCombs and Shaw (1972) stated thus:
“In choosing and displaying news,
editors, newsroom staff and broadcasters play an important part in shaping
political reality. People learn not only about a given issue, but how much
importance to attach that issue from the amount of information in a news story
and its position. The mass media may well determine the important issues, that
is the media may set the agenda”. (p. 176)
As human beings, we tend to be drawn
by the audio-visual quality of broadcast media. Everyday, we come across series
of useful information, by voluntary or involuntary exposure. There are several
programmes that serve to create awareness on the issue of female participation
in politics. Because of these, various women over the years, have been
sensitized on the need to engage in political activities. From talk shows, news
programmes announcements, soap operas and even documentaries, broadcast media
has made positive impact in the fight for the cause of the girl child. They
have been remarkably proactive in struggle against sexism in this country,
hence their impact felt.
However, because of some of challenges
as discussed earlier, broadcast media may not have been able to achieve their
desired goals in the area of politics. Nevertheless, inspite of the hurdles,
broadcast media could still contribute more significantly to the struggle for
active female participation, as this would foster national development.
Therefore, more focus should be placed towards motivating and encouraging
Nigerian women. Today, more and more women are standing up to acknowledge the
right to vote freely and be voted for. Even in other sectors of the economy,
women are gradually coming out of their shells, and taking confident strides
towards economic growth and national development. They are no longer willing to
be pushed in the background, and broadcast media, in its way, could make a
better use of their position as an intermediary between the government and
society and pave a way for the active participation and occupational of
political positions by women.
2.2.9 Attitude of Broadcast Media to Nigerian Women
The issue of public/private dichotomy
that has affected the political culture also linguistically reflects on the
language of politics. The public/private divide is a symptom and cause of
women’s political oppression. Furthermore, it is argued here that broadcast
media is one of the institutions where feminists tackling women’s liberation
should also look at because of its place in politics and its influence on the
gendered polity.
Furthermore, Gallagher (1990), writing
about male-dominated institution, says
that women working in the organizations are often ‘boxed in’ by the dominated
interest and attitude of sexism embodied in the professional standards and
programmed output of broadcast media organizations.
They are hardly seen in management
positions. Those who through thick and thin are in management positions tend to
become ‘sociological males’ to adapt to the male culture. How does this relate
to the issue of women’s participation in politics?
MacBride
et al (1981), posits that:
Communication, with its immense possibilities for
influencing the minds and behavior of people, can be a powerful means of
promoting democratization of the society and of widening public participation
in the decision-making process. This depends on the structures and practices of
the media and their management and to what extent they facilitate broader
access and open the communication process to a free interchange of ideas,
information and experiences among equals, without dominance and gender discrimination.
(p.265).
Inspite of these, what distinguishes a woman, is not the
fact that she suffers discrimination, but that she is able to rise about it and
move on to occupy top-level positions, not only in politics, but in other
profession that are seen as exclusive of males.
2.3 Empirical
review
According
to Okafor (2010), in a research carried out on the role broadcast media play in
mobilizing women to participate in politics in Enugu, broadcast media have positive impact in mobilizing women to participate
in politics, but it is found wanting in fostering development for gender
equality in politics.
The study notes that women in Enugu depend
significantly on radio as a major source of information on day to day
activities,. This is in accordance to what the Agenda setting theory of the
media posits. Others use it for entertainment, education and diversion. The
study showed that the stereotyped,
malignant nature of male politicians and gender inequality are some of what
counts for low participation of women in politics.
Also,
Nwankwo (2010) in ‘Background paper on engendering political leadership and
accountability in Nigeria’, a working paper on gender responsiveness in
politics shows that male dominance on
political culture and values are one of the reasons for gender imbalance in
elective offices. The situation has been further aggravated by the growth of
corruption, criminal activity and violence perpetuated by the major political
parties. There is a widespread incidence of violence against women and women
are victims of different forms of discrimination and religious fundamentalism.
Women hold a secondary position except as voters. Indigene-ship has been used
as a weapon to exclude women from political participation. Women who are
married to men who are not indigenes of their local government or state suffer
systematic discrimination. They are told to return to their maiden local
government to contest for elective positions.
Furthermore, Elsie Thompson, in her
study of women’s political participation in Nigeria, found that, in addition to
poverty and lack of education, a major barrier for women’s advancement is what
she called “the system of cultural/traditional inhibitions”. This is on the
basis of the assumption that women are to be seen and not heard; women’s roles
are rearing and taking care of children and the home, and marginalization by
men. These studies go a long way in showing how insignificantly women have been
placed in the political setting in Nigeria.
Finally, in other parts of the world,
women like Ellen Johnson Sir-leaf of Liberia has made history as Africa’s first
female president. Other women like Chancellor Angela Merkel of Germany,
Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner of Argentina and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina
Wajed of Bangladesh have set remarkable examples for women by rising to
positions of heads of state in their respective countries.
Hilary Clinton, who was a leading
contender in the just concluded United States elections but unfortunately lost
to President Donald Trump, has set a remarkable landmark for the active
participation of women in politics worldwide. She rose above speculations and
criticism, and the fact that her husband, Bill Clinton, had once served as
President of the United States, and became the first woman in America to be a
strong and leading contender in the race for the presidential seat, missing
only by a narrow gap to her opponent.
Therefore, Nigerian women could rise
above barriers and begin to aim higher in their quest for leadership positions
in politics
No comments