LITERATURE REVIEW ON NEWSPAPER READING HABIT OF THE YOUTHS IN OJI RIVER LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ENUGU
LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will adopt the
theoretical and empirical review.
2.1 THE
MEDIA (TELEVISION/NEWSPAPER) AS THE 3TH ESTATE OF
THE REALM
After the legislature, Executive and
Judiciary, which are the first three estate of the realm and arms of
government, the mass media is generally regarded as the 4th estate
of the realm and the communication wing of the public administration in the
society. According to Usua (2008:4) the 4th estate of the realm hold
politicians and leaders accountable to the people and urge politicians to
fulfill their promises to the people while also encouraging citizens to be
loyal and committed to the ideals of their nation by being law abiding and
undertaking their responsibilities to the nation.
Information is regarded as the
necessary ingredient of good and effective public administration. Udoudo in
International Communication lecture note Department of Linguistics and
Communication Studies, Uniport, sees communication (information) as the vehicle
for all forms of relationships, economic, political, cultural, social,
intellectual and above all technological dominance of the wealthy. The power of
the press or mass media (Television/Newspaper) is so strong that its contents
can influence its audience. All over the world, the potency of the press as the
4th estate of the realm is acknowledged. Thomas Jefferson, an
America philosopher and former US president once said “since the basic of
democracy was opinion of people, the very first objective was to keep that …
“if it were left to me to decide whether we should have a government without
the press or press without the government I won’t hesitate to choose the
latter” Daramola (2003:39).
Elder statesmen around the globe have
at one time or another made historic remarks about the performance of the press
as a veritable organ for sanity restoration in society. An indication that the
press or mass media is indispensible. Nserika (1995:2) Napoleon Bonaparte of
France also remarked that he would prefer to be faced by a battalion of
soldiers than a single press. In his opinion, “the pen is mightier than the
sword. Nserika (1995:2) also on the other hand, the press is flawless. Walter
Cronkite, formerly of the Columbian Broadcasting Service quoted that the press
can be prejudice and biased. They are not always fair and just. In relevance to
this study, the press and mass media has the strength to make us believe what
is not sometimes true. The press or mass media relay information to the public
which could be either negative or positive. Bittner (1989:341).
2.2 MEDIA
FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS
The media have various functions which
can be categorized looking at the functions of the media fro social
institutions such as state, religion, culture, politic, Nserika (1995:16).
To the state, the media perform such
functions as acting as partners in progress, it plays the watchdog role, serves
as one of the tenants of democracy, ginger and raise the consciousness of the
people (mobilization) etc.
To religion, the media could be use to
propagate, promote and win converts. Our broadcast media are fraught with
religious broadcast in addition to article on religion in the print.
To politics, they set political agenda
and various other political roles. To culture, the media function is referred
to as transmission of cultural heritage. The media promote the culture of a
people. Nserika (1995:17).
The media also have the conventional
function of information, education, recreation and entertainment, transmission
of cultural heritage, persuasion and advertising.
These are the manifest class
functions. The manifest class functions of the media are those functions which
are obvious and which the society is conversant with.
Worthy to note is the fact that the
most important function of the mass media is to disseminate information. Get
the public acquainted with important recent events. Ndimele and Kasarachi
(2006:143). The media provides various information to the public. It could be
an information of a pre-warning against crises, danger etc. Recent events of
importance are also relayed to the public Baran (2009:389).
Most print and electronic media are
sometimes solely dedicated to news and information provision. At the level of
education, the mass media teach and instruct the society/public by imparting
knowledge on individual members of the public. For instance, most books,
magazines and newspapers carries messages of instruction with a view to
broadening the mental horizon of members of the public.
In recent times, in the newspaper for
instance there are feature stories, editorials and even cartoons that are aimed
at imparting a certain knowledge on their readers, thereby educating them. Also
in the broadcast media, we find program of schools, teaching broadcast for the
purpose of educating the audience regardless of age and gender.
As a tool for persuasion, the mass
media can convince and convert the public. For advertising, the mass media are
able to capture their audience/target through critical reasoning and logical
argument, the targeted audience are the persuaded to embrace the product or
service.
The
media also performs the function of entertainment: till date, the media is
credited with providing the greatest entertainment for the public.
Entertainment can be found in both factual or fictional stories on things like
love, crime, humour conflict etc. Ndimele and Kasarachi (2006:156) Mass media
dysfunctions are also enormous like her functional roles. The mass media either
print (newspaper) or broadcast (Television), also have dysfunctions.
Ndimele and Karasarchi (2006:157)
states that according to Merton (1957) this dysfunction is under the unintended
functions of the mass media. The consequences of a social activity that is
undesirable or are devoid of positive value from the perspective of social
welfare are considered of dysfunctions. These dysfunctions could be:
Unnecessary
Anxiety in Society: The media have the power to cause unnecessary anxiety
amongst individuals in the society. The mass media can misinform the people by
relaying/transferring false information.
In the print, it is usually in the
case of junk press and yellow press in Nigeria. Publication of false
information on danger and crisis will tense the atmosphere thereby resulting in
undue anxiety.
Moreover, the mass media can turn her
public or audience to a captive one. This is a situation referred to as
Narcotisation. Ndimele and Kasarachi (2006:161) here, the narcotics are the
mass media where as the addicts are the captive audience.
In the case of the broadcast media
like the television, its programmes can sometimes turn us to captives. In some
cases, we can do without it. For example, programmes like “Fuji house of
commotion” “Papa Ajasco” Ndimele and Kasarachi (2006:161) can get its audience
and turn them to addicts/captives. One can cancel his or her previous
engagements to meet up with the broadcast time of such programmes that is if
the individual can in the first place schedule a meeting on the days of the
programmes. The addition can be such that the individual is captive for the
whole of that day.
Television’s implication for reading
performance and school achievement are examined within the framework of the
displacement hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that watching television may
affect students reading achievement by displacing other activities crucial to
the development of reading skills. such as leisure reading. A synthesis of
eight state wide reading assessments and a secondary analysis of the 1984
National Assessment of Education Progress which include measures of scholastic
achievement. Out of school activities and reported television viewing exposure,
are used to analyst four theories of displacement: that television displaces
activities with functional similarity, activities in physical and psychological
proximity, marginal fringe activities that have become less appealing due to re
organization of the child functional needs with age. Results indicate that the
differences in reading scores for those students watching television 2-4 hours per day are small, but beyond a hours
of viewing, the effects are negative and increasingly more deleterious.
Analysis of outside activities suggests that television is tied to a different
set of needs and gratification that leisure reading, sports, or spending time
with friends. Small but negative relations are reported between television
viewing and homework. For the vast majority of children, however spending time
viewing television is tempered by the increasing demands of schooling and the
onset of social activities as children grow older. (www.jstor,org/discover)
inordinate time spent viewing television can have negative effect on its
audience. As in youth violence, a child who is addicted to a violent broadcast
can either be affected positively or negatively.
2.3 CONCEPT
OF YOUTH VIOLENCE
Youth violence is the violence
involving young person, typically children, adolescents and young adults
between the ages of 15 and 24 (UNESCO Definition).
A youth as seen earlier, is a person
between the state of childhood and adulthood. Violence here involves actions,
using physical force intended to hurt, harm, damage or kill. It involves use of
greater force or density. It includes aggressive behaviours such as drugs
abuses, rape, misuse of alcohol etc.
According to (www.wikipedia 500.com)
youth violence is a learned behaviour. Children often experience violence for
the first time in their lives in their homes or in their communities. Studies
have shown that children who experience violent acts as victims or victimizers
are more likely to become violent adults (www.youth violence.com)
2.4 NEED
FOR EFFECTIVE READING CULTURE
It is a well know fact that when there
were no televisions, handsets and computers, children and adults alike spend
hours reading books.
Today, people have lost their passion
to reading as a result of availability of multiple options other than reading
material. (Journal of Research in Education and Society vol.2 No.1, April
2011). This is a shame because reading offers a productive approach to
improving vocabulary and world power.
The acquisition of reading skills does
not only affect or improve confidence in language arts, but also in other
subjects such as Social Studies, Science, and Mathematics etc. Poor reading
skill can make a child develop poor attitude to school and it can create self-esteem
problems later in life (Fosudo, 2010).
According to Internet sources
(http:/es/.fis.edu) the advantages of reading are numerous. These include but
not restricted to the following:
i.
Reading is an active mental
process: Unlike television books (Newspapers) make you use your brain. By
reading, an individual think more and become smarter.
ii.
It is a fundamental skill builder:
Every good course on the planet has a matching book to go with it. Why? Because
book help clarify difficult concepts. Books provide information that goes
deeper than just classroom discussions.
iii.
Reading gives glimpse into other
culture and places: Books can expand your horizons by letting you see what
other cities, countries, and cultures seem like and what they have to offer.
Other advantage of
reading include improving concentration and focus, building self-esteem,
improving memory, learning ability to aid independently, improving creativity,
giving you something to talk about, reducing stress, Oke (1996) gives reasons
why people read thus:
a.
Reading is a tool of self
improvement leading to do-it yourself techniques acquisition, equipping oneself
with skills for better job.
b.
Reading for pleasure and relaxation
c.
Reading is status symbols: This
involves the prestige and value society places on reading rather than noting
According to Antwi (1985), several
studies show a disturbing relationship between reading/early literacy and
child’s emotional, mental health and social behaviour. According to him, a
study done in the United State of America (USA) showed that reading was
correlated with the delinquency independent of neighbourhood, ethnicity, and
family involvement effects, was the same in both ethnic groups sampled and was
constant over the age range studies. In other words, the more serious the
reading problem, the more serious the delinquent acts. The study also showed
that early in the primary grades, children who are struggling with literacy
begin to experience failure, and with it a potentially devastating cascade of
related negative effects in their development if inter-and intrapersonal
skills. These effects can include task-avoidance and acting out social
behaviours, lowered level of personal regard, and seeking of personal
validation in venue less pro-social than school.
In Nigeria, Henry (2004), reveals that
40 percent of adult Nigerians never read a non fiction book from cover to cover
after they finish school. The average Nigerian reads less than one book per
year, infact, only one percent of successful men and women in Nigeria read one
non fiction book per month. In the same study, 30 million Nigerians have
graduated from high school with poor reading skills. Some people do not read
because they are lazy, they are surrounded by so many distractions, especially
television and other social activities while others never get around doing and
serious reading. Majority of young learners are neither learning to read nor
reading to learn, this is so because they have not been told or realize how
important reading is. Large and growing numbers of children are reading upper
elementary levels unable to read and comprehend class level and appropriate
materials. The spate of examination malpractices is a direct result of poor
reading habit.
The magnitude of this problem causes
not only in numerable personal tragedies but also significantly draw
instructions down, and jeopardizes the future of our public schools. What is
most frustrating is that much of this reading problem could have been prevented
if government, libraries and teachers apply what is known as reading
instruction or techniques.
For many years, especially in the
west, there have been doubts whether the written medium of narration would
survive the onslaught of technology. Will children and adults who spent most of
their working time in-front of television or computer continue to read book?
Similar fears were expressed at the end of the 19th century with the
emergence of film and cartoons. Books survived that era and maintained its
position as a parallel “technology”. Topo (2005) affirms that the need today is
the thoughtful integration of book reading with the hi-tech i.e. the
integration of multimedia activities such photography, printing and drawing,
sewing and crafts, daymation and on-line services in our libraries. This will
become a new object in tune with the times. It will also reverse the decline in
book reading among children and adults. Oke (1996) affirms also that a
conscious effort should be made by all stake holders in the educational system
to promote reading habit. According to him, equipping the libraries will be the
first step toward these efforts.
2.5 TELEVISION
WATCHING, NEWSPAPER READING AND COHORT DIFFERENCES
IN VERBAL ABILITY
This study according to
(www.jstor.org/discover) found that an intercohort decline in vocabulary at all
or most educational levels in the United States in recent years was closely
related to an intercohort decline in Newspaper reading. The decline in
Newspaper reading, in turn, may have resulted largely from an increase in
television watching, but other influences, such as those from women’s increased
participation in the labor force, seem to have been involved as well. Other
types of reading apparently declined in tandem with newspaper reading and thus
differences in reading are the most promising explanation for differences in
the verbal ability of the various cohorts.
2.6 THE
INFLUENCE OF TELEVISION ON YOUTHS
The media have a lot of influence on
youths and adults alike narrowing down the effects of mass media on youths, we
are considering the effects of television on youths. As known, television
programmes have visual and audio effects, Since psychological
behaviour/attitude differ from person to person, the programme which may be
taken or seen from the positive angle by an adult, can be taken wrongly by a
youth who may not see the negative impact therein.
Most of the children end up
impersonating the people they see in television programmes like Indians,
cowboys, robbers, police and soldiers as a result of the powerful impact the
television has on them. According to Baran (2009), a sociologist, Herbet Blumer
(1920), in his study, children imitate what they see in films and television
broadcast. Some children are seen fighting each other with broom stick made
into spears, wooden sword etc. with this, it becomes clear that children copy
all kinds of acts they see on television.
With regards to this, in the print
media (Newspaper), if any violent is drawn or written, it is not acted out so
the imitation by a child is limited. Though violence can be written and a child
might read it and practice it however this will not impact more as television
because thousands of words cannot replace a particular picture.
2.7 FACTORS
RESPONSIBLE FOR POOR READING CULTURE IN NIGERIA
The way of life of any nation is
influenced by the percentage of its citizen who are literate. According to
(Journal of Research in Education and Society vol.2 No.1, April 2011). Cuba is
a country that shared borders with the United States of America. She has the
highest rate of literacy in the world. This is among the reason why Cuba has a
vibrant economy despite the decades of diplomatic row with the strongest nation
in the world. (Henry, 2004) opined that the level of reading in Nigeria in
particular and other third world countries is nothing to write home about.
Okusaga (2008) asserts that being a former British Colony, Nigeria’s literacy
culture ought to be as standardized as that of the Britain. About 99% of
British citizen can read and write. The same cannot be said of Nigeria. Henry
(2004), states that out of 814 million illiterates in the world, the third
world countries, most especially Africa have a huge percentage of these
illiterates. However, Latin America, Asia and others a making frantic efforts
to drastically reduce illiteracy rate, but owing to the following reasons, same
cannot be said of Africa with Nigeria in view.
a.
Abject poverty: In sub-Saharan
Africa, the impact of poverty is deeply felt. Only a few people are living
above poverty line. About 80% of Africans are living under hazardous
conditions. The per capital income of an average citizen in Nigeria, “the giant
of Africa” with its abundant natural resources, is two dollars. This, in no
little measure, affects the reading habits of Nigerians. Many are two poor to
send their children to school. They lack money to buy books and pay school
fees.
b.
Corruption: Corruption affects
Nigeria so much. Government is trying to fight corruption which has drastically
affected Nigerians reading culture. Corruption is present everywhere in Nigeria
from Government institutions to private organizations. In schools, for
instance, many students prefer to indulge in immoral acts rather than face
their studies diligently. Social vices like sex for marks, sales of ungraded
text-books to students at high fees, using money to buy examination marks and
indulging in examination malpractices abound in our higher institutions of
learning. Those who engage in these infamous acts consider reading as a waste
of time hence there are short cuts to the top.
c.
Noise culture: There are few
conducive and serenity that are characteristics of learning environment and
these are lacking in places used for reading. Most schools are cited in densely
populated areas, where distractions prevent smooth flow of learning. Moreover,
the “illiteracy syndrome” has an adverse effect on the psyche of many Nigerian
citizens. Most people perceived noise to be integral part of their culture.
d.
Undue importance attached to
wealth: Many Nigerian people usually celebrate mediocrity at the expense of
intellectuals. This obviously manifested in our rush for material things. Some
people abandon their educational career for the pursuit of money. Many have
abandoned their education in search of “quick money” which they believe can be
gotten in business and or in politics. Many people run way from village schools
to take up jobs in Lagos. Sometime ago, a prominent man from the eastern part
of Nigeria cried out that youths are not going to school again. All they want
is to go in to business and make money. All these throw spanner in the wheel of
reading habit.
e.
Lack of reading language: In many
homes, the language of reading is introduced late; the first contact point of
some children with this language is school. Children grow old to perceived
reading and its associated activities as herculean hence its adverse effect on
them.
f.
Dearth of libraries: Libraries play
important role in the promotion of reading habits. However, these libraries
(school and public) are either non-existing or not playing their expected role
state and local government as well as proprietors of schools (government and
individuals) have not deemed it fit to comply with library provisions in the
National Policy Education (NPE) public libraries (the people university), are not
being established, where they are needed, by appropriate governments. The few
existing public libraries are neither funded nor stocked with reading resources
that can impact on the lives of citizenry.
2.8 TELEVISION VIEWING, CHILDREN’S READING HABIT AND
RELATED CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR
According to (Professor of Psychology,
Direction of the Clinical Psychology Training Programs and co-Director of the
Family Television Research and Consultant Center) as cited by International
Journal of Behaviour Medicine (2004 Vol. 11 No.3 152-163). In recent years,
television has been perceived as a villain by many educators and social
scientists. In addition to noting its impact on aggressive behaviour,
television has been blame for student’s decreasing reading scores, and lack of
attention and enthusiasm in school. However, in contrast to the extensive
research on the observable impact of television violence, there has been little
research on the relationship between children’s television viewing and reading
or school behaviour.
The relationship between television
viewing and reading and school behaviour has been explained in several ways.
The most obvious is that television viewing displaces reading. Watching
television has become such a popular pastime that many children have little
time for reading, and less incentive to learn to read. Displacement may be
especially relevant in the elementary school years. During these years, when
children are first learning to read and need to practice reading in order to
improve their skills, they tend to spend more and more time viewing television.
Children’s average time spent viewing television. Children’s average time spent
viewing television increase steadily during the elementary school years until
it reaches a peak of three to five hours daily at age 12. In essence, the type
of television program and the amount of time spent viewing predicted children’s
reading habits, imagination and enthusiasm in school as they grow older.
2.9 IMPORTANCE
OF READING
The importance of reading to the
individual and to the society cannot be stress further. Chika (2009) as cited
in Journal of communication and culture: international perspective Vol. 1 No.3,
December, 2010, outlines the virtues of reading to include the provision of
individual’s welfare, social progress and international understanding, the
provision of skills, knowledge and the right attitude that frees one from
idleness or boredom. She points out that reading is not just for school but
also for life and that in enhances the chances of success at school and beyond.
She observes that achievement in reading is necessary for achievement in
school, adding that when a poor reader makes no provision for improvement, he
is eventually frustrated into a miserable failure. Agade (2008) as cited by the
same source states that reading is an indispensible tool for learning in the
various hierarchies of modern education set up which he opines facilitates the
learning process and effectively promotes intellectual development in the
learners. Sandras (2007) stresses that reading is essential to full
participation in modern society because it adds quality to life and provides
access to culture and cultural heritage. She posit that reading empowers and
emancipates citizens and bring people together. She is also of the view that it
is through reading that a child broaden his/her understanding of life, affords
him/her the tools to explore his/her talent while learning about himself and
his society. According to Sandras (2007), reading enables creativity to blossom
in the child. The English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) once said that
while speaking makes a ready man, writing an exact man, reading makes a full
man. Consequently, there is fulfillment in indulging in the reading culture.
Reading is the springboard of any
literary programme. It does not only give learners an active place, but also
places them in the center of pedagogy and curriculum (Corcoran and Evans,
1987). Reading is a very powerful and indispensable equipment for learning and
acquisition of the varied skills and experiences needed by man to develop a
satisfactory personal life. It is important that pupils/students should develop
positive habits towards reading of books as a life-long learning experience.
Reading is important and beneficial to
man and because of this, the Nigerian Government is stimulating the reading of
books, Newspapers and magazines. This is important now that an increasing
number of people are spending less time reading and also when reading skills
are declining. According to Ikpaahindi (2008) as cited in
(http:/www.webpages.udiaho.edu/˜ mbolin/igbokwe-obodike-ezeji.htm), research
has shown that more than half of the adults in Nigeria hardly ever read a book.
He stressed that those who do read spend a much smaller part of their leisure
time during so, compared to 25 years ago.
Powell-Brown (2003) cited in Popoola,
Ajibade and Etim (2010) reported that a few of her pre-service teachers never
loved to read. She point out that although many of them know how to read, they
prefer to gather information through movies, television, websites and
conversations. Ojielo (2001) in support, highlighted that Nigerians prefer
listening to story instead of reading, a practice which accounts for the
popularity of home video among people.
Kaufman (2001) observed that children
spend their time watching television and play video games when they are most
spending a great deal of time reading and writing. Statistics collected
according to Kaufman by the U.S. Department of Education “National center for
Educational Statistics” shows that students achievement in both has been
declining in recent times. Ikpaahindi (2008) rightly observed that information
and communication technology especially internet technology is having adverse
effect on the reading culture of Nigerians. This is because it discourage lazy
students from engaging in serous reading. Many students prefer to spend most of
their time in the cyber cafes, browsing, playing games, chatting with friends.
Ezema and Ekere (2009) identified that only few schools have good libraries
while majority have limited dog-eared locked up in few cupboards in the
libraries.
Bobda (2011) while investigating the
reading habits of some postgraduates high school student-teachers in Yaounde
stated the lack of reading in Africa and specifically in Cameroun is a
phenomenon often decried in popular opinion. Ama (2011) investigated the
influence of teachers on student’s leisure reading habits with a view to
finding solution to the contentious view that Botswana do not have a reading
culture. In Nigeria, Ibode and Isiugo-Abanihe (2011) in their study on
redressing poor reading culture among youths in Nigeria laments the phenomenon
of poor reading culture, especially among youths in Nigeria. The study investigate
the extent to which leaders in the secondary schools in South-west are
implementing research-based strategies for improving reading culture among
youths.
The onset of information technology
World War and in Nigeria in particular has revolutionalized the reading habits
of young people especially in tertiary institutions. On one hand the new
technology has enhanced students’ learning experiences. It has created
platforms for them to interact with the world and network socially all round
the world.
Cull (2011) opined that while the
internet is a text saturated world, reading online screens tends to be
significantly different form reading printed text. In his study, the reviewed
literature from a variety of disciplines on the technological, social, behaviour,
and neuro-scientific impacts that the internet is having on the practice of
reading. A particular focus was given to the reading behaviour of emerging
University students, especially within Canada and the United States. A brief
overview was provided of the recent transformation of academic libraries into
providers of online digital text in addition to printed books and other
materials. On the other hand it seems it has some negative effects on their
reading habits. Instead of pupils reading books, they now listen to people talk
on YouTube, Facebook etc. So they do not feel the need to read any longer.
A survey carried out by Book Aid
International 2003 as cited in Sonaike (2004) found out that children in
developed countries read for relaxation, while a majority of children in
developing countries read for examinations.
It can be seen from the review of
literature that there is a worrisome phenomenon of poor reading habits of
students coupled with the fact that internet use and television viewing has
revolutionized the reading habits of young people today.
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