The thirst for development in rural areas gave rise to the need and utilization of traditional communication
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
The thirst for
development in rural areas gave rise to the need and utilization of traditional
communication which is a simpler and more interactive tool to disseminate
development messages to rural dwellers.
This chapter reviewed relevant literature, empirical studies conducted by other researchers and theories applicable to the study.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
This chapter reviewed relevant literature, empirical studies conducted by other researchers and theories applicable to the study.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
This work is based on the following theories:
The diffusion of innovations theory
The diffusion of innovations theory
The democratic participants’ theory
2.1.1 The Diffusion of
Innovations Theory
The diffusion of innovations theory explains how information
diffuses into society or the process by which a social system gets information
about innovations from certain channels not classified amongst the mass-media.
Rogers (1983) refers to diffusion as a special kind of communication concerned with the dissemination of messages that are new ideas. Such messages according to him have elements of uncertainty, the degree of which can reduce only by obtaining information. He analyses social system as a set of inter-related units that engage in joint problem- solving to achieve common goals. Within the system existing social communication structures can either facilitate or hinder diffusion.
The theory identifies norms as established behavioural patterns exemplified by opinion leaders who can informally influence individuals’ attitude or overt behaviour in a desired way. It further highlights change agents and aids as important aspects in the diffusion process. The diffusion of innovation theory portrays the conventional mass media as not doing all the persuasion and mobilization of individuals attributed to them.
Rogers (1983) refers to diffusion as a special kind of communication concerned with the dissemination of messages that are new ideas. Such messages according to him have elements of uncertainty, the degree of which can reduce only by obtaining information. He analyses social system as a set of inter-related units that engage in joint problem- solving to achieve common goals. Within the system existing social communication structures can either facilitate or hinder diffusion.
The theory identifies norms as established behavioural patterns exemplified by opinion leaders who can informally influence individuals’ attitude or overt behaviour in a desired way. It further highlights change agents and aids as important aspects in the diffusion process. The diffusion of innovation theory portrays the conventional mass media as not doing all the persuasion and mobilization of individuals attributed to them.
This theory is relevant to the present study since it gives
recognition to the role of social structures and communication channels
customary to the various sectors of the society as integral to the diffusion of
development messages in the society. The inclusion of opinion leaders, change
agents and aides in the diffusion process suggest interpersonal contact with
those that are not oriented towards the mass media. This situation is pertinent
to the condition of the Bille people whose acceptance or rejection of alien
ideas is subjected to the opinion leaders’ view of such ideas. This is due to
the distinguished position held of the opinion leaders by their people as link
between the community and the rest of the world. They are seen by their people
as ones with ability to use the mass media that expose them to the happenings
outside their immediate environment and being sufficiently credible, can always
keep them informed about issues that are of their interest within and outside
the community.
2.1.2 The
Democratic Participants Theory
The democratic participants’ theory expects the media of
communication to support cultural pluralism at grassroots level. This theory
emphasizes that communication media should be used to arouse the consciousness
of the grassroots people and empowering them.
According to Baran and Davis (2003) though the Social Responsibility Theory assumes that the mass media can perform this function of empowerment, the democratic participants theory “calls for development of innovative ‘small’ media that can be directly controlled by group members… existing small media should be identified and funded” (P. 112).
According to Baran and Davis (2003) though the Social Responsibility Theory assumes that the mass media can perform this function of empowerment, the democratic participants theory “calls for development of innovative ‘small’ media that can be directly controlled by group members… existing small media should be identified and funded” (P. 112).
The theory tends to reverse the top-down flow of communication by
calling for the democratization of media ownership. It suggests that the
democratization action will enable every sector of society have a means of
adequately participating in the communication process through the media of
communication owned by them. Amongst other actions to be taken for the
democratization of communication media ownership, Baran and Davis (2003)
explain the theory as suggesting the identification of such small media where
they already exist and the funding of these media for adequate communication of
the interests of their owners within and outside their environment.
According to Wilson (1991), Gambo and Aji (2007), the theory aligns with development communication scholars advocacy for the use of the culture-bred traditional media of communication for rural development communication because they are the communication media owned and controlled by rural communities such as those in Nigeria, including the Bille community.
According to Wilson (1991), Gambo and Aji (2007), the theory aligns with development communication scholars advocacy for the use of the culture-bred traditional media of communication for rural development communication because they are the communication media owned and controlled by rural communities such as those in Nigeria, including the Bille community.
2.2 Conceptual Review
2.2.1 Communication in
rural areas
Communication is at the heart of social relations whenever
individuals come to establish required relationship with one another. Communication
plays a significant role in human life for the existence and organization of
every society as a fundamental and vital process and without communication no
society can exist much less be developed.
Communication activities in rural areas ease transition of information within the communities. Before the introduction of urbanized communication system, other channels of communication enabled easy transition of information and communication. Wilson (1985) calls such communication activities, Oramedia and regards traditional communication system as the products of the interplays between a traditional community’s custom and conflict, harmony and strive, cultural convergences and divergences, culture specific, tangible interpersonal relations, symbols and codes and moral tradition which include mythology, oral literature (poetry, story-telling, proverbs, masquerades, witchcraft, rites, rituals, music, dance, drama, costumes etc ) abstractions and artifacts which encompass a people factual, symbolic and cosmological existence from birth to death and even beyond death. `
Wilson (1999) claims that African traditional communication is hybrid of other field of study such as anthropology, sociology linguistics, music, religion, mythology and indeed a mixture of various cultural practices which have become standard. It is based on the above claims that traditional communication is seen as very complex, as it is an admixture of social conventions and practices which have been sharpened into veritable communication modes for the society.
Oreh (1984) observes that the traditional media include all the possible ways of attracting attention such as facial expression and gestures touch and visual symbols, words both written and unwritten.
Okunna (2002) explains that the indigenous communication has preserved our communicative identities because they are still in use today. This strengthens Ekwelie and okonkwo (1983) who had earlier stated that folk media has survived from the earliest of time and have made an adjusted change into the modern electronic age. They also agree that the media has equally undergone changes of their own although they have retained their basic modes and significance.
2.2.2 Traditional communication
Every society, community or ethnic group has a peculiar method of communication that has existed amongst its people overtime. Its peculiarity draws from the fact that the system is based upon socio-cultural values and norms of the people. All these build into what is known as the traditional communication system of a people which predate the mass media of communication.
Traditional communication has not been easy to define by communication experts.
Osuji (1992); referred to it as rural communication because it is used predominantly in the rural areas as against the urban centers where conventional mass media forms are mostly used to distributeinformation .
Akpabio (2003); pointed out that traditional communication is the process and system that employs symbols , values and institution which directly appeals and ready connects with the people and this enhance the variety and effectiveness of the messages that circulate in the community.
Uboajah (1985); states traditional communication as the oral characteristics of the system which is described as ORALMEDIA according to him ,oral media as grounded on indigenous culture produced and consumed by members of a group . Describing its method of application, he postulates a situation field experience mold of communication.
He said oral media can be viewed as simple matrix message transmission and feedback matrix that goes on between the chief of the village and his villages through the medium of gung men or other oral media modes that includes drums, market forums, village and other meeting, rites and rituals, festivals and such other effective oral media message carriers.
Ansu-Keyeremeh(1998)sees traditional communication as any form of endogenous communication system, which by virtue of its origin form an integration into a specific culture, serves as a channel for messages in a way or manner that requires the utilization of values, symbols, institutions and ethos of the most culture through its unique qualities and attributes(p.3)
According to Uboaja (1985); traditional communication is divided into two categories namely ; verbal and non verbal communication.
Verbal Communication: this includes the use of spoken words in the transmission of information. In this category, there are several communication systems or channels. they include market place , town crier,visits,churchand villages squares.
Non verbal Communication: This is also known as the unspoken language which does not utilizewords whether written or spoken. Non verbal language comprises of the specific body positions which man uses for communication, example hepatics, kinesics, oculesics,chronemics.
Communication activities in rural areas ease transition of information within the communities. Before the introduction of urbanized communication system, other channels of communication enabled easy transition of information and communication. Wilson (1985) calls such communication activities, Oramedia and regards traditional communication system as the products of the interplays between a traditional community’s custom and conflict, harmony and strive, cultural convergences and divergences, culture specific, tangible interpersonal relations, symbols and codes and moral tradition which include mythology, oral literature (poetry, story-telling, proverbs, masquerades, witchcraft, rites, rituals, music, dance, drama, costumes etc ) abstractions and artifacts which encompass a people factual, symbolic and cosmological existence from birth to death and even beyond death. `
Wilson (1999) claims that African traditional communication is hybrid of other field of study such as anthropology, sociology linguistics, music, religion, mythology and indeed a mixture of various cultural practices which have become standard. It is based on the above claims that traditional communication is seen as very complex, as it is an admixture of social conventions and practices which have been sharpened into veritable communication modes for the society.
Oreh (1984) observes that the traditional media include all the possible ways of attracting attention such as facial expression and gestures touch and visual symbols, words both written and unwritten.
Okunna (2002) explains that the indigenous communication has preserved our communicative identities because they are still in use today. This strengthens Ekwelie and okonkwo (1983) who had earlier stated that folk media has survived from the earliest of time and have made an adjusted change into the modern electronic age. They also agree that the media has equally undergone changes of their own although they have retained their basic modes and significance.
2.2.2 Traditional communication
Every society, community or ethnic group has a peculiar method of communication that has existed amongst its people overtime. Its peculiarity draws from the fact that the system is based upon socio-cultural values and norms of the people. All these build into what is known as the traditional communication system of a people which predate the mass media of communication.
Traditional communication has not been easy to define by communication experts.
Osuji (1992); referred to it as rural communication because it is used predominantly in the rural areas as against the urban centers where conventional mass media forms are mostly used to distributeinformation .
Akpabio (2003); pointed out that traditional communication is the process and system that employs symbols , values and institution which directly appeals and ready connects with the people and this enhance the variety and effectiveness of the messages that circulate in the community.
Uboajah (1985); states traditional communication as the oral characteristics of the system which is described as ORALMEDIA according to him ,oral media as grounded on indigenous culture produced and consumed by members of a group . Describing its method of application, he postulates a situation field experience mold of communication.
He said oral media can be viewed as simple matrix message transmission and feedback matrix that goes on between the chief of the village and his villages through the medium of gung men or other oral media modes that includes drums, market forums, village and other meeting, rites and rituals, festivals and such other effective oral media message carriers.
Ansu-Keyeremeh(1998)sees traditional communication as any form of endogenous communication system, which by virtue of its origin form an integration into a specific culture, serves as a channel for messages in a way or manner that requires the utilization of values, symbols, institutions and ethos of the most culture through its unique qualities and attributes(p.3)
According to Uboaja (1985); traditional communication is divided into two categories namely ; verbal and non verbal communication.
Verbal Communication: this includes the use of spoken words in the transmission of information. In this category, there are several communication systems or channels. they include market place , town crier,visits,churchand villages squares.
Non verbal Communication: This is also known as the unspoken language which does not utilizewords whether written or spoken. Non verbal language comprises of the specific body positions which man uses for communication, example hepatics, kinesics, oculesics,chronemics.
Wilson (2005) observes that following the varied sources of
literature on the subject matter, different coinages and phrases is been
utilised to represent traditional communication. They include communal media
and informal media (Akpabio 2003) while Ugboajah(1985) calls it Oramedia and
folkmedia interchangeably.
According to Wilson (2005), while the National universities commission (NUC) refers to it as African communication system (ACS) thereby restricting the communication system to African, the term “traditional communication” was coined by UNESCO to give it a universal outlook, thus including communication systems anywhere outside the continent of Africa that exhibits the attributes of the definition.
Wilson and Itek (2006), state that some scholars classify the traditional communication system as interpersonal or at best, group communication. In their opinion, such scholars have justification owing the fact in this system, the source and recipient of messages are in the same physical geographical environment. It does not require the use of distance communication technology. Similarly the word Oramedia could be perceived as inferring from the sole use of oral presentation in the communication process and the virtual absence of written forms.
The main attributes of traditional communication are that:
It is part and parcel of the way of life of the people
It utilizes symbolisms from the community and readily connects with the people and
The values of the people as well as the age-long institutions are incorporated in the communication process (akpabio,2004).
Traditional communication addresses specific audiences. The media involved are persuasive, credible and an effectual means of reaching the members of the community in which they exist(Nwabueze,2006). The instruments employed at any specific instance depends largely on the type of information the gatekeeper wants the public to know and the particular section of the society concerned (Wilson,1991).
The town crier in Wilson and Itek (2006) isseen as a significant feature of the traditional communication system. He is community council. “He does not speak or narrowcast information on his own”( p.57). As the mouthpiece of the village authority, the town crier is the official channel of the community.
Private organizations like cultural groups and age-grade associations provide information on particular issues for their members using different instrument whose sounds can be differentiated from that of the official instruments. These organizations pass for the private channels .
According to Nwabueze (2006), the media of traditional communication “are people-oriented and culture- oriented and give room for immediate feedback” (p.121). Wilson (1998) also sees the traditional media system as multi-channel, time-honoured, interactive, customary and also integrative. These attributes of the traditional media system informs Ugboajahs’s(1977) opinion that oramedia can be seen as a rich interpersonal communication which speaks to the rural resident in their own language proverbs and idioms and ideals with problems and issues that affect him directly in his daily living.
The traditional communication system allows for immediate feedback often in the form of immediate reaction to the purpose of the message. The town crier may be asked to repeat or explain any part in the message for a better understanding .The message is often transmitted in a language that makes meaning to the faction of the people it is created for and boost communication interest of the general public, using more liberal choice of words.
2.2.3 The nature of traditional communication
Given the amount of literary work on the place of traditional communication in rural development, it is pertinent to state the inevitability of traditional communication in development of rural communities in Nigeria. Already, some radio stations are using local languages in mass oriented programmes for the benefit of the non-literate rural people.
According to steeves (1999), much has been written on the uses of folk media and indigenous forms of communication in development. Barne (1998) and Nwabueze (2006), equally made suggestions for the extension of the use of traditional contents in modern mass media, these notwithstanding, Wilson (1991) sees studies and researches into the traditional media system as relatively new.
Traditional communication is conceptualized as having hard and software components. The channels constitute the hardware component while the contents constitute the software components often originating from an authoritative source that depends on the local cultures.
The channels are multifarious and in some cases, more than one is adopted to get the software across to the people. For instance, the town crier is regarded as an all purpose information disseminator but the choice of the accompanying hardware (drums, gongs, bells etc.) depends on what has been agreed upon by the community. Besides, the choice of channel for varying degrees of message depends on predetermined long standing ethno-cultural underpinnings.
According to Ngwu (2006), Nwodu and Nwamuo (2006) the channels are in turn categorized into verbal and non verbal .Those considered as verbal channels are;
According to Wilson (2005), while the National universities commission (NUC) refers to it as African communication system (ACS) thereby restricting the communication system to African, the term “traditional communication” was coined by UNESCO to give it a universal outlook, thus including communication systems anywhere outside the continent of Africa that exhibits the attributes of the definition.
Wilson and Itek (2006), state that some scholars classify the traditional communication system as interpersonal or at best, group communication. In their opinion, such scholars have justification owing the fact in this system, the source and recipient of messages are in the same physical geographical environment. It does not require the use of distance communication technology. Similarly the word Oramedia could be perceived as inferring from the sole use of oral presentation in the communication process and the virtual absence of written forms.
The main attributes of traditional communication are that:
It is part and parcel of the way of life of the people
It utilizes symbolisms from the community and readily connects with the people and
The values of the people as well as the age-long institutions are incorporated in the communication process (akpabio,2004).
Traditional communication addresses specific audiences. The media involved are persuasive, credible and an effectual means of reaching the members of the community in which they exist(Nwabueze,2006). The instruments employed at any specific instance depends largely on the type of information the gatekeeper wants the public to know and the particular section of the society concerned (Wilson,1991).
The town crier in Wilson and Itek (2006) isseen as a significant feature of the traditional communication system. He is community council. “He does not speak or narrowcast information on his own”( p.57). As the mouthpiece of the village authority, the town crier is the official channel of the community.
Private organizations like cultural groups and age-grade associations provide information on particular issues for their members using different instrument whose sounds can be differentiated from that of the official instruments. These organizations pass for the private channels .
According to Nwabueze (2006), the media of traditional communication “are people-oriented and culture- oriented and give room for immediate feedback” (p.121). Wilson (1998) also sees the traditional media system as multi-channel, time-honoured, interactive, customary and also integrative. These attributes of the traditional media system informs Ugboajahs’s(1977) opinion that oramedia can be seen as a rich interpersonal communication which speaks to the rural resident in their own language proverbs and idioms and ideals with problems and issues that affect him directly in his daily living.
The traditional communication system allows for immediate feedback often in the form of immediate reaction to the purpose of the message. The town crier may be asked to repeat or explain any part in the message for a better understanding .The message is often transmitted in a language that makes meaning to the faction of the people it is created for and boost communication interest of the general public, using more liberal choice of words.
2.2.3 The nature of traditional communication
Given the amount of literary work on the place of traditional communication in rural development, it is pertinent to state the inevitability of traditional communication in development of rural communities in Nigeria. Already, some radio stations are using local languages in mass oriented programmes for the benefit of the non-literate rural people.
According to steeves (1999), much has been written on the uses of folk media and indigenous forms of communication in development. Barne (1998) and Nwabueze (2006), equally made suggestions for the extension of the use of traditional contents in modern mass media, these notwithstanding, Wilson (1991) sees studies and researches into the traditional media system as relatively new.
Traditional communication is conceptualized as having hard and software components. The channels constitute the hardware component while the contents constitute the software components often originating from an authoritative source that depends on the local cultures.
The channels are multifarious and in some cases, more than one is adopted to get the software across to the people. For instance, the town crier is regarded as an all purpose information disseminator but the choice of the accompanying hardware (drums, gongs, bells etc.) depends on what has been agreed upon by the community. Besides, the choice of channel for varying degrees of message depends on predetermined long standing ethno-cultural underpinnings.
According to Ngwu (2006), Nwodu and Nwamuo (2006) the channels are in turn categorized into verbal and non verbal .Those considered as verbal channels are;
1. The town crier
2. The village square meetings
3. Visits
4. Market places
5. The Traditional leaders
Other social structure (age grades, folk theatre, clubs etc)
The non-verbal channels include; Idiophhones
Membranophones Music and dance Masquerade performances Colour schemes Aerophones Ojectifics Extra-mundance communication
Symbolography Signals etc.
Membranophones Music and dance Masquerade performances Colour schemes Aerophones Ojectifics Extra-mundance communication
Symbolography Signals etc.
Having seen the array of channels of traditional communication
system, there is need to look at the contents of the communication system since
according to Wilson (1991), communication processes in rural areas are geared
towards achieving different goals.
Directives are given to the rural people through these media and they take the form of general purpose announcements and instructions to groups and sections of the community. The news content comes in the form of information concerning events that have taken place or about to take place.
To create awareness of goods and services, the village hawkers announce them in a sing-song manner, walking from compound to compound. Goods are placed in front of houses, at strategic places of the village and on tree stumps as advertisement for such goods. The public relations contents of traditional communication manifest in praise-singing, drama, concerts and or speeches made at gatherings and churches designed to enhance the image of government, a person or an organization.
Entertainment is probably the most pervasive content of the traditional media. This is done through music, dance and drama performances at the town square in most cases and in the various compounds. Ngwu 2006 states that education is carried out most often, informally and to a lesser degree, Formally it comes to the people through cultural groups (dance and masquerade groups), socio-cultural groups (town unions and social clubs) and membership of societies. With its rich content, it can be argued that if properly harnessed, the media of traditional communication have the potentials to immensely encourage the socio-cultural, economic political and environmental development of any society.
In previous studies of the traditional communication system, researchers seem to agree that its message system can be represented by a familiar structure of Source, Message, Channel, Receiver and Effects. The source is usually seen to be the village or community leader acting alone or in concert with his council of chief or elders. This source is the authorizing body for the outgoing communication. They represent the modern day editorial board of a news paper or magazine. But they do not encode the message in the form in which it is delivered to the audience. This source discusses the details and leaves the rest to the traditional newsman whose role is often seen as that of a messenger. A messenger does not alter the content of a message but could embellish it with humour, anecdotes and examples, which enrich the picture intended. This task of the newsman is facilitated through the use of an instrument, which acts as an attention inviting or directing medium.
The message is a complex combination of verbal and nonverbal communication, which is translated by the traditional newsman, who is part of the agenda building process with the village council. Traditional communication message content has been captured by Wilson (1987) when he outlined the various offerings to include directives, instructions, announcements, news of events, deaths, upcoming events; advertising through physical display of goods, use of hawkers and vendors, use of fragrance aroma, singing and drumming; public relations conducted person-to-person or person-to-organization; performances and announcements, entertainment and education which is conducted formally and informally through cultural groups, membership of societies, etc
The traditional newsman may use any of the musical or other instrument approved for communication purposes in a particular society. When he uses the gong he is called the ‘gong man’. The preferred instrument varies from place to place. The ‘Yoruba talking drum’ is the preferred medium in most parts of Yoruba land in south west Nigeria while those in south south particularly the Ijaws use gong and some times drums.
In the African context, the channel is also the medium. The channel is both the medium and instrument for getting a message across to the audience. It is also in the form of people, place, the agency of a human being (gong man) and utilitarian groups, which have principle and ancillary functions.
The venue where the communication event is taking place is also seen as a channel. In ordinary terms the channel refers to the physical means by which communication messages are conveyed either as signals, airwaves, venues or places where the media event takes place. The term is sometimes interchangeably used to apply broadly to intermediate agencies that enable communication to take place. Thus speech, writing, gestures, facial expressions, mode of dressing, the performing arts or presentational media are all channels on the context
The receiver (audience) of communication represents people (individuals or groups). In the traditional communication media system, the audience may be an individual or group depending on the message, which has its force in a place, that is, it could be venue-oriented. Such venues could be the market, church, shrine or village square. It could be among people as found in-group appeal, women/men, and in political messages. It could be based on message content (message type, subject matter, purpose, style). Finally the audience as explained by McQuail, can be time-oriented where the period of delivery (morning or night) is important.
However, Nightingale (2003) views the audience as people assembled, people addressed and as a happening concept which is mutable pending on the circumstance of the message. McQuail (2005) explains further in respect of the ‘mass audience’ in what he terms the ‘rediscovery of the audience as a group’ with a personality. To him while impersonality, anonymity and vastness of scale might still describe the phenomenon in general; much actual audience experience is personal, small scale and integrated into social life and familiar ways. He thus reaffirms the social group character of media audiences around the world which conceptualization he restored to traditional relevance and prominence.
The effect component is linked to the time of message delivery, the nature of the message and the activity value orientation of the audience. This element of the communication process is very critical in message production and dissemination as all communicators must think of the possible effect of their messages on their audience before delivery. This is a major consideration among traditional African communicators. Even when the intention is to bring about change, the overall good of society is a primary consideration not the materialistic alteration of the profit motive.
2.2.4 The Application of Traditional Communication to Rural Development
The media of traditional communication are used as veritable tools and vehicles for rural development. They are applied in several ways to actualize advancement of the socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental situations of rural dwellers. At other instances, traditional communication is applied to effect change in some beliefs, values and attitudes.
Okunna (2007), states that no serious mass oriented development programme, especially in rural communities in Africa ever succeeds without the active involvement or participation of the inhabitants within the traditional system (p.126).
Educational roles of the traditional media are carried out through groups enlightenment programmes organised for the masses, often directing them towards self-actualization and national development. Rural populaces are educated through songs, instructions, performances and general surveillance.
Traditional communication is used to mould mutual understanding, unity, progress thereby paving and creating enabling playing field for rural development. Through traditional communication, the rural dwellers help to project a development plan for it to be sustainable.
Konkwo (1997) highlights how traditional communication develops the individuals. He observes that “Oral story telling imbues the teller and audience with imaginative, creative and intellectual development” (P.23). Anunike (2007) adds that the riddles in the stories also enhances the individuals and further develop the mind of the listener who can harness them for creative and artistic productions. Moreover, the youths can imbibe virtuous behavioural principle embedded in such stories.
Regarding mobilization of people for development in rural areas, communication as elements of persuasion that help to promote campaigns against social vices or make acceptable, government programmes for the rural people. Being grassroots entertainment media, they cover intimate social groups and any message they bear is passed to the people effortlessly. Active mobilization of the rural dwellers for joint actions cannot do without the input of the town crier aided by his gong or idiophone.
Market women association, age grades and other socio-cultural groups are potent channels for spreading directives and information to encourage awareness and compliance with worthy endeavours. Wilson 1997 and Ngwu 2006 opined that Venue-oriented channels like the markets provide avenue for adequate interactions between and amongst villagers and people from neighbouring villages. The markets and cultural festivals provide for the support for good relationship and beneficial exchanges that better the lots of rural dwellers.
The traditional media are used to educate the rural people on the espousal of improved health practices. In Northern Nigeria for instance, The Church of the Brethren sponsored EkklesiyarYan’uwa-a rural health programme for illiterate villagers. The church trained people specifically in the use of several indigenous means of communication on health programmes. By 1986, a total of 141 villages had participated in the programme (Clearing House on Development Communication, 1986. Non-formal education acquired at the village level equally becomes successful through the use of traditional communication media.
Churches, mosques and other places of worship are potent channels in information dissemination for the well being of the people. Since the people gather in these places regularly in their numbers, the places become useful avenues to inform them of the latest and future events. In-depth explanation of issues is provided in the places of worship because the rural people have subscribed to the spiritual leadership of the priests or imams, their compliance with what comes through their spiritual leadership is easily achieved. Buttressing this point Gambo and Aji (2008) cited a case that occurred in Northern Nigeria polio controversy in 2004. The supreme leader of the Muslim religion in Nigeria, the Sultan of Sokoto addressed his followers to correct the misconception they had about the polio vaccines. But for the sultan’s intervention, coupled with the use of the Shehu of Dikwa, Alhaji Umar Ibrahim El-Kanemi to head the committee for the resolution of the controversy, the polio eradication initiative in Northern Nigeria would have remained stalled. Folk plays are also used to communicate moral lessons in rural areas of the African society. The Ghanaian experience in this regard is a good example. Bame (1998) states that a particular drama series entitled “Unity in strength” were used to teach a lesson about strength in unity. It focused on villagers using local languages and local household utensils like the broom to vividly demonstrate the strength in togetherness and weakness in isolation.
Bame explains that unlike the mass media programmes which are usually produced for a large and heterogeneous audience, the folk media use local dialects to disseminate ideas in the most intimate and down-to-earth ways in the rural areas. Community theatre could be seen as drama organized to reflect the problems and aspiration of a community and played by the members of the community. It creates a forum for discussion of such problems and aspiration, builds community cohesiveness and stimulates group action. They also have satirical elements that help to correct deviant behaviours.
Going by theafore mentioned, one can see that traditional communication is an indispensable factor for rural development. Traditional communication have credibility among the rural dwellers and other users of the information from them. They are available and usable by the vast majority of the people in the rural areas and also accessible since they pervade the society. There is instant feedback within the channels making it possible for the receiver to be in touch with the same channel. The rural audience attitude to the media is positive and accommodating. There is linguistic clarity in the presentation of traditional media messages these presentation are media in the language which most of the people understand.
Access to getting and sending information for development to rural dwellers can be achieved througha familiar and acceptable mode used bythe people. Users’ perception of the credibility of the information goes without restriction, following the trust built over the years on the traditional mode of communication associated with their communities.
This chapter will look into the theoretical review, conceptual review and empirical review. The theoretical review deals with two theories which will show the relationship between these theories and the study. The conceptual reviews deals with those things that are related or are in connection to the study, while empirical review gives details on studies conducted by other researchers that are related to the study.
2.3 Review of empirical studies
BAME, K.N. (1998). The Use of Indigenous Entertainment Forms in Development Communication in Ghana. In K. Ansu-Keyeremeh (Ed.) perspectives in Indigenous Communication in Africa. (P. 53-73). Legion: School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana.
Bame (1998) examined the role concert parties and town or village group discussion play in communicating family planning to Ghanaian audience. His study had four objectives; the first and major objective was to compare the traditional media with the mass media so far employed for the same purpose. In this case, entertainment was the medium of communication. Other objectives were the existence of thetraditional communication under study and the different types used in educating people. Finally investigating the extent indigenous entertainment has been used in educating Ghanaians on the use and importance of family planning.
The research questions seeks to find out the existence of the various indigenous entertainment forms in Ghana, those that are used to aid development messages and how effective has this indigenous system been when compared with the mass media for the purpose of communicating the public on family planning.
Data collection instruments used in the research were observation and interviews on six Ghanaian urban and rural communities.Bame assumed that compared with the modern mass media the folk media were more familiar and closer to the ordinary people at the grassroots level. Hence they seem to be more effective channels for the communication of development messages to the grassroots people.
He found out from the study that literate as well as urban respondents indicated that mass media items served as their source of family planning ideas. Conversely illiterate and rural respondents attributed their knowledge of family planning messages to traditional or folk media.
Bame also discovered that in terms of effectiveness in conveying family planning message, the concert party played and the village or town group discussion compared favourably with modern mass media items except radio and mobile cinema that surpassed them. Moreover, between the two folk media, the concert play was found more suitable to the rural dwellers while group discussions proved to be agreeable to both rural and urban dwellers.
Bame holds that the practical implication deduced from the general ranking of the media items used in the study in both rural and urban Ghana is that “radio, the folk drama, mobile cinema and group discussion stood out as the four most effective media for communicating family planning” (P.72).
Having established that literacy and urbanization are key factors determining the application of mass media or folk media for development message dissemination to the different sectors of Ghanaian society.
Bame (1998) posits that;
There is no better and effective approach to facilitate developmentamong rural Ghanaians than this culture base development strategy….Such activities hold promise for future development in third world countries (P.73).
Though it was found that the folk media was able to achieve the objective of effectively disseminating family planning message to the rural people, there was no indication that the rural people were involved in the performances. The exercise passed for whatKomoh (1997) calls “theatre for the people” in which the mobilizer packages the drama and takes it to the target community. At the end of the exercise the audience or community is not left with any skill or legacy to fall back on. This contravenes Anunike’s (2007) recommendation that change agents using the community theatre medium should adopt “theatre by the people” in which the mobilize enables the target community to make the theatre itself and play all the roles. Theatre by the people ensures that local actors can build upon their newly acquired skills and be ready to use the theatre group to mobilize the people as and when necessary.
Bame’s work relates to the study on “use of traditional African communication in the development of Bille community” in the sense that it also sought to establish the place of indigenous communication media for rural development. The slight difference is only on Bame’s focus which is on the entertainment media. Though group discussion is also examined by Bame, both media are among the variety of traditional media that form the nucleus of the current study.
Directives are given to the rural people through these media and they take the form of general purpose announcements and instructions to groups and sections of the community. The news content comes in the form of information concerning events that have taken place or about to take place.
To create awareness of goods and services, the village hawkers announce them in a sing-song manner, walking from compound to compound. Goods are placed in front of houses, at strategic places of the village and on tree stumps as advertisement for such goods. The public relations contents of traditional communication manifest in praise-singing, drama, concerts and or speeches made at gatherings and churches designed to enhance the image of government, a person or an organization.
Entertainment is probably the most pervasive content of the traditional media. This is done through music, dance and drama performances at the town square in most cases and in the various compounds. Ngwu 2006 states that education is carried out most often, informally and to a lesser degree, Formally it comes to the people through cultural groups (dance and masquerade groups), socio-cultural groups (town unions and social clubs) and membership of societies. With its rich content, it can be argued that if properly harnessed, the media of traditional communication have the potentials to immensely encourage the socio-cultural, economic political and environmental development of any society.
In previous studies of the traditional communication system, researchers seem to agree that its message system can be represented by a familiar structure of Source, Message, Channel, Receiver and Effects. The source is usually seen to be the village or community leader acting alone or in concert with his council of chief or elders. This source is the authorizing body for the outgoing communication. They represent the modern day editorial board of a news paper or magazine. But they do not encode the message in the form in which it is delivered to the audience. This source discusses the details and leaves the rest to the traditional newsman whose role is often seen as that of a messenger. A messenger does not alter the content of a message but could embellish it with humour, anecdotes and examples, which enrich the picture intended. This task of the newsman is facilitated through the use of an instrument, which acts as an attention inviting or directing medium.
The message is a complex combination of verbal and nonverbal communication, which is translated by the traditional newsman, who is part of the agenda building process with the village council. Traditional communication message content has been captured by Wilson (1987) when he outlined the various offerings to include directives, instructions, announcements, news of events, deaths, upcoming events; advertising through physical display of goods, use of hawkers and vendors, use of fragrance aroma, singing and drumming; public relations conducted person-to-person or person-to-organization; performances and announcements, entertainment and education which is conducted formally and informally through cultural groups, membership of societies, etc
The traditional newsman may use any of the musical or other instrument approved for communication purposes in a particular society. When he uses the gong he is called the ‘gong man’. The preferred instrument varies from place to place. The ‘Yoruba talking drum’ is the preferred medium in most parts of Yoruba land in south west Nigeria while those in south south particularly the Ijaws use gong and some times drums.
In the African context, the channel is also the medium. The channel is both the medium and instrument for getting a message across to the audience. It is also in the form of people, place, the agency of a human being (gong man) and utilitarian groups, which have principle and ancillary functions.
The venue where the communication event is taking place is also seen as a channel. In ordinary terms the channel refers to the physical means by which communication messages are conveyed either as signals, airwaves, venues or places where the media event takes place. The term is sometimes interchangeably used to apply broadly to intermediate agencies that enable communication to take place. Thus speech, writing, gestures, facial expressions, mode of dressing, the performing arts or presentational media are all channels on the context
The receiver (audience) of communication represents people (individuals or groups). In the traditional communication media system, the audience may be an individual or group depending on the message, which has its force in a place, that is, it could be venue-oriented. Such venues could be the market, church, shrine or village square. It could be among people as found in-group appeal, women/men, and in political messages. It could be based on message content (message type, subject matter, purpose, style). Finally the audience as explained by McQuail, can be time-oriented where the period of delivery (morning or night) is important.
However, Nightingale (2003) views the audience as people assembled, people addressed and as a happening concept which is mutable pending on the circumstance of the message. McQuail (2005) explains further in respect of the ‘mass audience’ in what he terms the ‘rediscovery of the audience as a group’ with a personality. To him while impersonality, anonymity and vastness of scale might still describe the phenomenon in general; much actual audience experience is personal, small scale and integrated into social life and familiar ways. He thus reaffirms the social group character of media audiences around the world which conceptualization he restored to traditional relevance and prominence.
The effect component is linked to the time of message delivery, the nature of the message and the activity value orientation of the audience. This element of the communication process is very critical in message production and dissemination as all communicators must think of the possible effect of their messages on their audience before delivery. This is a major consideration among traditional African communicators. Even when the intention is to bring about change, the overall good of society is a primary consideration not the materialistic alteration of the profit motive.
2.2.4 The Application of Traditional Communication to Rural Development
The media of traditional communication are used as veritable tools and vehicles for rural development. They are applied in several ways to actualize advancement of the socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental situations of rural dwellers. At other instances, traditional communication is applied to effect change in some beliefs, values and attitudes.
Okunna (2007), states that no serious mass oriented development programme, especially in rural communities in Africa ever succeeds without the active involvement or participation of the inhabitants within the traditional system (p.126).
Educational roles of the traditional media are carried out through groups enlightenment programmes organised for the masses, often directing them towards self-actualization and national development. Rural populaces are educated through songs, instructions, performances and general surveillance.
Traditional communication is used to mould mutual understanding, unity, progress thereby paving and creating enabling playing field for rural development. Through traditional communication, the rural dwellers help to project a development plan for it to be sustainable.
Konkwo (1997) highlights how traditional communication develops the individuals. He observes that “Oral story telling imbues the teller and audience with imaginative, creative and intellectual development” (P.23). Anunike (2007) adds that the riddles in the stories also enhances the individuals and further develop the mind of the listener who can harness them for creative and artistic productions. Moreover, the youths can imbibe virtuous behavioural principle embedded in such stories.
Regarding mobilization of people for development in rural areas, communication as elements of persuasion that help to promote campaigns against social vices or make acceptable, government programmes for the rural people. Being grassroots entertainment media, they cover intimate social groups and any message they bear is passed to the people effortlessly. Active mobilization of the rural dwellers for joint actions cannot do without the input of the town crier aided by his gong or idiophone.
Market women association, age grades and other socio-cultural groups are potent channels for spreading directives and information to encourage awareness and compliance with worthy endeavours. Wilson 1997 and Ngwu 2006 opined that Venue-oriented channels like the markets provide avenue for adequate interactions between and amongst villagers and people from neighbouring villages. The markets and cultural festivals provide for the support for good relationship and beneficial exchanges that better the lots of rural dwellers.
The traditional media are used to educate the rural people on the espousal of improved health practices. In Northern Nigeria for instance, The Church of the Brethren sponsored EkklesiyarYan’uwa-a rural health programme for illiterate villagers. The church trained people specifically in the use of several indigenous means of communication on health programmes. By 1986, a total of 141 villages had participated in the programme (Clearing House on Development Communication, 1986. Non-formal education acquired at the village level equally becomes successful through the use of traditional communication media.
Churches, mosques and other places of worship are potent channels in information dissemination for the well being of the people. Since the people gather in these places regularly in their numbers, the places become useful avenues to inform them of the latest and future events. In-depth explanation of issues is provided in the places of worship because the rural people have subscribed to the spiritual leadership of the priests or imams, their compliance with what comes through their spiritual leadership is easily achieved. Buttressing this point Gambo and Aji (2008) cited a case that occurred in Northern Nigeria polio controversy in 2004. The supreme leader of the Muslim religion in Nigeria, the Sultan of Sokoto addressed his followers to correct the misconception they had about the polio vaccines. But for the sultan’s intervention, coupled with the use of the Shehu of Dikwa, Alhaji Umar Ibrahim El-Kanemi to head the committee for the resolution of the controversy, the polio eradication initiative in Northern Nigeria would have remained stalled. Folk plays are also used to communicate moral lessons in rural areas of the African society. The Ghanaian experience in this regard is a good example. Bame (1998) states that a particular drama series entitled “Unity in strength” were used to teach a lesson about strength in unity. It focused on villagers using local languages and local household utensils like the broom to vividly demonstrate the strength in togetherness and weakness in isolation.
Bame explains that unlike the mass media programmes which are usually produced for a large and heterogeneous audience, the folk media use local dialects to disseminate ideas in the most intimate and down-to-earth ways in the rural areas. Community theatre could be seen as drama organized to reflect the problems and aspiration of a community and played by the members of the community. It creates a forum for discussion of such problems and aspiration, builds community cohesiveness and stimulates group action. They also have satirical elements that help to correct deviant behaviours.
Going by theafore mentioned, one can see that traditional communication is an indispensable factor for rural development. Traditional communication have credibility among the rural dwellers and other users of the information from them. They are available and usable by the vast majority of the people in the rural areas and also accessible since they pervade the society. There is instant feedback within the channels making it possible for the receiver to be in touch with the same channel. The rural audience attitude to the media is positive and accommodating. There is linguistic clarity in the presentation of traditional media messages these presentation are media in the language which most of the people understand.
Access to getting and sending information for development to rural dwellers can be achieved througha familiar and acceptable mode used bythe people. Users’ perception of the credibility of the information goes without restriction, following the trust built over the years on the traditional mode of communication associated with their communities.
This chapter will look into the theoretical review, conceptual review and empirical review. The theoretical review deals with two theories which will show the relationship between these theories and the study. The conceptual reviews deals with those things that are related or are in connection to the study, while empirical review gives details on studies conducted by other researchers that are related to the study.
2.3 Review of empirical studies
BAME, K.N. (1998). The Use of Indigenous Entertainment Forms in Development Communication in Ghana. In K. Ansu-Keyeremeh (Ed.) perspectives in Indigenous Communication in Africa. (P. 53-73). Legion: School of Communication Studies, University of Ghana.
Bame (1998) examined the role concert parties and town or village group discussion play in communicating family planning to Ghanaian audience. His study had four objectives; the first and major objective was to compare the traditional media with the mass media so far employed for the same purpose. In this case, entertainment was the medium of communication. Other objectives were the existence of thetraditional communication under study and the different types used in educating people. Finally investigating the extent indigenous entertainment has been used in educating Ghanaians on the use and importance of family planning.
The research questions seeks to find out the existence of the various indigenous entertainment forms in Ghana, those that are used to aid development messages and how effective has this indigenous system been when compared with the mass media for the purpose of communicating the public on family planning.
Data collection instruments used in the research were observation and interviews on six Ghanaian urban and rural communities.Bame assumed that compared with the modern mass media the folk media were more familiar and closer to the ordinary people at the grassroots level. Hence they seem to be more effective channels for the communication of development messages to the grassroots people.
He found out from the study that literate as well as urban respondents indicated that mass media items served as their source of family planning ideas. Conversely illiterate and rural respondents attributed their knowledge of family planning messages to traditional or folk media.
Bame also discovered that in terms of effectiveness in conveying family planning message, the concert party played and the village or town group discussion compared favourably with modern mass media items except radio and mobile cinema that surpassed them. Moreover, between the two folk media, the concert play was found more suitable to the rural dwellers while group discussions proved to be agreeable to both rural and urban dwellers.
Bame holds that the practical implication deduced from the general ranking of the media items used in the study in both rural and urban Ghana is that “radio, the folk drama, mobile cinema and group discussion stood out as the four most effective media for communicating family planning” (P.72).
Having established that literacy and urbanization are key factors determining the application of mass media or folk media for development message dissemination to the different sectors of Ghanaian society.
Bame (1998) posits that;
There is no better and effective approach to facilitate developmentamong rural Ghanaians than this culture base development strategy….Such activities hold promise for future development in third world countries (P.73).
Though it was found that the folk media was able to achieve the objective of effectively disseminating family planning message to the rural people, there was no indication that the rural people were involved in the performances. The exercise passed for whatKomoh (1997) calls “theatre for the people” in which the mobilizer packages the drama and takes it to the target community. At the end of the exercise the audience or community is not left with any skill or legacy to fall back on. This contravenes Anunike’s (2007) recommendation that change agents using the community theatre medium should adopt “theatre by the people” in which the mobilize enables the target community to make the theatre itself and play all the roles. Theatre by the people ensures that local actors can build upon their newly acquired skills and be ready to use the theatre group to mobilize the people as and when necessary.
Bame’s work relates to the study on “use of traditional African communication in the development of Bille community” in the sense that it also sought to establish the place of indigenous communication media for rural development. The slight difference is only on Bame’s focus which is on the entertainment media. Though group discussion is also examined by Bame, both media are among the variety of traditional media that form the nucleus of the current study.
Eze (2006) Traditional communication System, A study
carried out onOguta in Oguta Local Government Area of Imo State.
The main objective of the studywas to identify traditional media activities and its effects on the people of Oguta. It also seeks to review the traditional communication medium used in mobilizing the oguta people in the development of its rural community.Eze (2006) had four research questions that sought to investigate the existence of traditional communication mode in Oguta community , the specific ones used for carrying out development messages and how they have aided the development of Oguta community.
The study made use of opinion survey for data collection. The researcher used personal interview and questionnaire as research instrument. Personal interview was used to obtain information from rural dwellers on the traditional system of communication.
The study also used systematic sampling method to get a good percentage of people’s opinion that had adequate knowledge of both traditional media and the modern media. In this regard the study found out that the use of traditional media system to communicate to the people in the rural areas was more effective. Eze (2006) therefore recommended that the Oguta Local Government should encourage traditional system of communication .Although the study reviewed was carried out in Oguta, it has relevance to this study because the theme is the same, which is centred on traditional media and rural dwellers.
Okon C.E. (2007) Traditional Modes of Communication in Mass Mobilization Towards the Planned 2007 Local Council Election in Uyo Local Government Area of AkwaIbom State. A Post-graduate Diploma (PGD) project.University of Uyo.
Okon (2007) researched into the modes of traditional communication in mass mobilization for local council election in Uyo Local Government Area of AkwaIbom State. The objectives were to determine the modes/media of traditional communication used and assess the impact of these modes/media in mass mobilization for the 2007 local council elections.
Data was collected by means of interviews and questionnaire administered to the citizens of the 10 electoral wards of Uyo Local Government Area.
The findings revealed that traditional announcing, village council discussions, and age grade mobilization were the primary modes of traditional communication that were used for mass mobilization during the elections. It was also found out that the combined use of these modes of traditional communication were of significant impact on citizens’ awareness about election dates as well as voting procedures.
The study also revealed that traditional communication modes were more effective than the mass media for mobilization during the election due to the advantages of credibility, acceptability and accessibility to the rural people, which traditional communication media have over the mass media.
Another finding was that the use of traditional modes/media of communication for mobilization in the said elections was however, time consuming. Okon (2007) recommended the combined use of traditional modes of communication and the mass media for better results in rural mobilization for elections.
Okon’s study is closely related to this research as it equally sought to determine the traditional communication media and their impact in rural mobilization for participation in elections.
However, while Okon’s research was about the use of these media for mobilization for the election of political office seekers, the current research is concerned with the utility of the traditional media for rural development initiatives.
The main objective of the studywas to identify traditional media activities and its effects on the people of Oguta. It also seeks to review the traditional communication medium used in mobilizing the oguta people in the development of its rural community.Eze (2006) had four research questions that sought to investigate the existence of traditional communication mode in Oguta community , the specific ones used for carrying out development messages and how they have aided the development of Oguta community.
The study made use of opinion survey for data collection. The researcher used personal interview and questionnaire as research instrument. Personal interview was used to obtain information from rural dwellers on the traditional system of communication.
The study also used systematic sampling method to get a good percentage of people’s opinion that had adequate knowledge of both traditional media and the modern media. In this regard the study found out that the use of traditional media system to communicate to the people in the rural areas was more effective. Eze (2006) therefore recommended that the Oguta Local Government should encourage traditional system of communication .Although the study reviewed was carried out in Oguta, it has relevance to this study because the theme is the same, which is centred on traditional media and rural dwellers.
Okon C.E. (2007) Traditional Modes of Communication in Mass Mobilization Towards the Planned 2007 Local Council Election in Uyo Local Government Area of AkwaIbom State. A Post-graduate Diploma (PGD) project.University of Uyo.
Okon (2007) researched into the modes of traditional communication in mass mobilization for local council election in Uyo Local Government Area of AkwaIbom State. The objectives were to determine the modes/media of traditional communication used and assess the impact of these modes/media in mass mobilization for the 2007 local council elections.
Data was collected by means of interviews and questionnaire administered to the citizens of the 10 electoral wards of Uyo Local Government Area.
The findings revealed that traditional announcing, village council discussions, and age grade mobilization were the primary modes of traditional communication that were used for mass mobilization during the elections. It was also found out that the combined use of these modes of traditional communication were of significant impact on citizens’ awareness about election dates as well as voting procedures.
The study also revealed that traditional communication modes were more effective than the mass media for mobilization during the election due to the advantages of credibility, acceptability and accessibility to the rural people, which traditional communication media have over the mass media.
Another finding was that the use of traditional modes/media of communication for mobilization in the said elections was however, time consuming. Okon (2007) recommended the combined use of traditional modes of communication and the mass media for better results in rural mobilization for elections.
Okon’s study is closely related to this research as it equally sought to determine the traditional communication media and their impact in rural mobilization for participation in elections.
However, while Okon’s research was about the use of these media for mobilization for the election of political office seekers, the current research is concerned with the utility of the traditional media for rural development initiatives.
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