LiteratureReview On Factors Affecting the Utilization of Guidance and Counseling Services in Secondary Schools.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
Public relations have been viewed from
various perspective depending on the nature of the contributor that is
involved. Some agree on certain points while others have divergent opinion on
the contributions of public relation’s to organization or institution’s
performance. Many scholars see public relations as an indispensable management
tool largely responsible to the growth or other wise of an organization.
The review of literature will be Minge
on conceptual review, theoretical review and empirical review in evaluating
public relations strategies in the University of Port Harcourt.
2.1 Conceptual Review
In this subsection, we examined the
conceptual review:
2.1.1 Public Relations Concept
Public relations is the planned and
sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding
between an organization and its publics, public relations activity is organized
as a campaign or programme and is a continuous activity (Jefkins, 1998).
Public relations consist of all forms
of planned communication, outwards and inwards, between an organization and its
publics for the purpose of achieving objectives concerning mutual understanding
(p.2).
The Mexican school in (1978) agreed
that public relations practice is the art and social science of analyzing
trends, predicting their consequences, counseling leaders, and implementing
planned programmes of action which will serve both the organization’s and the
public interest.
It is this note that scholars accept
public relations as an instrument of management which helps to establish and
maintain flow of communication that results in mutual understanding, acceptance
and co-operation between an organization and its various publics.
Accordingly, Wilson (1997), “public
relations is a management function of a continuing and planned character
through which public and private organization and institution seeks to win and
retain the understanding sympathy about themselves, in order to complete as far
as possible their own policies as procedure to achieve by planned and
widespread information, more productive co-operation and more efficient
fulfillment of their common interest (P.117).
This encompassing definition of public
relations stresses its importance in the survival and successful management of
any organization in support of public relations as a pivotal of understanding
and co-operation, necessary for the survival and success of any organization,
Ugboajah (1990) posit that public relations has its pivot as communication
which is the key to understanding public relations. Since we have in a word of
interdependent where we can only survive in corporation with others, no institution,
organization or individual can survive with effective communication public
relations is the nurturing of communication channel for survival (P.34).
According to Allen et al (1990) public
relations is the planned effort aimed at influencing public opinion through
good character and responsible performance based upon mutually satisfactory
two-way communication” it becomes imperative that public relations,
irrespective of the organization, performs communication function. This
function aids in eliciting the opinions, attitudes and reactions of the persons
affected by the actions and inactions of the organization; and the evaluation
of consequences.
The duo also averred that “the
essentiality of the relation is beyond debate, in a world bound together by
interdependence and swift communication, yet split by recurring crises of
change and confrontation. “This therefore necessitates the understanding and
practice of public relations (P 67).
In
alluding to this view (Okon, 1998) state that in its raw form, public relations
employs the multiplexing tool communication to create mutual understanding,
communication in this regard is supposedly a two-way flow.
This communication function therefore
suits university of Port Harcourt, because by operating in this line, public
attitudes and opinions are known to the institution and appropriate measures
are taken to avert public disfavored (P.90).
This view of communication devotails
in-line with the observation of Kata and Khan (1990), “communication is of
broadest relevance to the function of any group, organization or institution,
and is the very essence of a social system of any organization. “this is also
why the British institute of public relations defined public relations as the
deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish mutual understanding and
good will between an organization and its publics.
In contextualizing this definition,
Okon (1990) states that public relations is not accidental but rather a
conscious action on the part of the organization. This definition also stresses
goodwill which the Webster’s collegiate dictionary defined as “the favour or
prestige that a business has acquired beyoung the mere value of what is sell”.
This goodwill as used in the
aforementioned context is earned and gained rather than bought. This according
to Okon (1990) implies that public relations cannot be bought.
2.1.2 History of Public Relations
In analyzing the origin of public
relations, Bland (1987) is of the opinion that public relations is as old as
man. He believes that human beings have been using public relations techniques
subconsciously.
Another scholar, Greener (1990)
averred that the first recorded application of this practice dates back to the
time of Moses. During this era, Aaron played a public relations role for Moses.
He utilized all the persuasive techniques that are common with its practice.
Okon (1998) asserts that public relations is age long, stating that the first
practice was carried out by Adam and Eve when they were still derizens of the
garden of Edem. After they disobeyed God by eating the forbidden fruit, they
realized that they were naked, when God called upon them, they first through to
cover their nudity before appearing in his presence. Writing on its potency and
its history, cutting et al (1990) opined that the origin of public relations
provides and helpful insight into its function, its strength and its weakness.
To them, the history is fascinating. They hold that the effort to deal with the
force of opinion and to communicate with others dates back to antiquity but the
degree of specialization, breadth of knowledge and intensity of effort require
today are relatively new.
The duo also posits that the power of
public opinion to control human affair have been recorded down through the
centuries. They are of the view that although the term “public relations” was
not coned until the eighteen (18th) century, the force of people
opinion was recognized as well as demonstrated in ancient times.
In Nigeria, the development of modern public
relations started when the then colonia administration setup a public relations
department, under the leadership of Mr. Harold Cooper, a public relations
experts. Its then function was to monitor the reaction of the people to
official policies and activities, serves as a liaison between the mass media
and government; and also carrying out general public relations function for
government. In 1962, two years after independence, the practice gained
professional identity, when the association of Nigerian public relations formed
under the leadership of Sam Ekpelle.
This association helped to draw
together an increased number of practitioners who over the years have become
members, associates or affiliates of the British institute of public relations.
The association subsequently adopted the more professional name of Nigeria
institute of public relations which is making remaricable progress.
2.1.3 Functions of Public Relations in an
Organization or Institute
Administrative functions today would
be incomplete without public relations as one of its major components. It is a
management function which attempt to do the following:
a.
Evaluate public attitudes and opinion
b.
An organization policies, procedures and
actions as they relate to the said organization’s public.
c.
Execution of an action and or
communication programme.
d.
Development of rapport, goodwill,
understanding and acceptance.
e.
The relationship between an organization
and its publics.
Similarly, Ajayi (1997) Secs
public.
2.2 Theoretical Review
In
this point we examine the review:
2.2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility by Pete and
Schramm (1963).
This theory is based on the fact that
freedom carries concomitant, responsibilities and obligation. This theory is
based on the principle of give and take. It states that organization should see
itself as indebted to its public in the perspective of being socially
responsive in corporate management is all about.
The expanding concentration of
population, the development of new technologies and the rising economic
affluence are some of the major causes of environmental problems. It is because
of these problems that most groups are calling on businesses to be socially
responsible to the society. The notion of “corporate social responsibility” has
grown out of the alterations that have taken place in the social contact. As
these changes have occurred for various reasons-affluence, education, increased
awareness generated by the media. The expectation that society in general and
societal segments in particular, have placed on business have to be known s its
social responsibilities.
The idea of social responsibilities
supposes that the corporation has not only economic and legal obligations, but
also certain responsibilities to society which extend these obligations.
2.3 Empirical Review
2.3.1 Public Relations Process
The definition of public relations as
relations with the general public through publicity, those functions of a
corporation, organization, institution and more; concerned with informing the
publics of its activities and policies. With an attempt to create favourable
public opinions public relations is the planned effort to influence opinion
through good character and responsible performance based upon mutually
satisfactory two-way communication.
In an attempt to establish and
maintain this very important and mutual understading necessary for effective
performance, an organization employs the public relations process of:
a.
Analyzing the need for the programme
b.
Developing the plan
c.
Pre-testing the plan
d.
Revising the plan
e.
Implementing the plan and;
f.
Evaluation (Wilson/1997).
Cutting
and centre capture the processes under the following.
1.
Research
and Listening: This involves probing the opinions,
attitude and reactions of those concerned with that acts and policies of an
organization, then evaluating the inflows. This task also requires determining
fats regarding the organization “what’s our problem”.
2.
Planning-Decision
Making: This involves brining the attitudes opinions, ideas
and reactions to hear on the policies and programmes of the organization. It
will enable the organization to chart a course in the interest of all
concerned. “here’s what we can do”.
3.
Communication
Action: This involves explaining and dramatizing the chosen
course is all those who may be affected and those who support is essential.
“Here’s what we did and why:?
4.
Evaluation:
This involves evaluating the results of the programme and effectiveness of the
technique used. “how did we do”?
Accordingly,
Ajayi (1997) posit that, the process consists of the following, application of
the situation definition of objectives, identification of the publics or
target, choice of the media and techniques, budget and evaluation of results.
However, one term emphasized by many
definitions of the concept has been a subject of controversy as its
misunderstanding has led many organizations or management into leaning the
substance of public relations to chase shadows.
The
term is “image”, its misunderstanding has led to many organizations to spend
some much time and money on publicity instead of the substance which leads to
mutual understanding. In alluding to this controversy and propaganda bout image
building approach in public relations, Ndimele citing Oyeneye (1997) defines
image as the impression, feeling or opinion which somebody has about an
organization product, services, or individual as a result of his contact with
any of them.
Finally,
effective public relations can serve as a panacea for the myriad of bad images
held by this institution which are predominantly due to hasty generalization
and misconception. As its primordial function, it does not entail portraying of
good image but also ensuring that this image is not ephemeral relations as a
management functions which handles complant, suggestions provides information
to management, represent management at various meeting organizes annual events.
It also maintain close hason with the press and handles outward flow of
information using press releases (P.21).
2.1.4 Public Relations Strategies
Public relations professionals use
many different strategies including news management, community relations
management and lobbying.
a)
New Management.
News
management according Nnandi (2010) create public relations message to generate
favourable publicity’s they are also created to maintain contact with reporters
(media relations).
b. Community Relations: Is created to maintain good relations
both management and community groups; use corporate and sponsorship and make
charitable contributions on both local or national levels.
c. Crisis
management adopted to repair a client’s public image following an error; guide
corporate response to an emergency and to rehabilitate public image following
“scandal.
d. Lobbying-adopted
to monitor the activities of government; maintain relationship with either the
community or its internal publics and to enable them disseminate accurate
information (Nnandi 2010).
2.1.5
Public Relations Tools
Public relations practitioners perform
their functions using a variety of tools, some of these are brochures,
newsletters, and company or institutional memos are fairly traditional. We will
look at some specialized tools, especially those used to reach out to external
public press release, video news releases, press kit, special events and
corporate relationship (P 14).
Press
Releases
A
press release, also known as news form, that contains the information needed to
write a news report. Press release are often written by public relations firm
on clients letter heads, with prominent contact information in the upper-left
hand corner. Their sole purpose is to place favourable information about the
client or product in a news report. Press release that arrive as digital file
to be inserted into a newspaper features or editorial sections with no change
are known as carried news. (P. 14).
Video news releases
A video news release is ready to broad
tape designed for use in television news programme. Created by professionals,
these videos feature good production values. Most VNR include not only a
reproduced news story complete with reporter and voice cover, but also the same
footage without the reporter to allow stations to use their own reporters to
package the story.
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