LITERATURE REVIEW ON WOMEN LIBERATION STEREOTYPED COVERAGE AND REPORTING IN NIGERIA: A STUDY OF THE NATION AND VANGUARD NEWSPAPERS

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0     INTRODUCTION

          This chapter deals with review of existing literary materials that relate to the research work. The review is divided into theoretical, conceptual and empirical reviews.

2.1     THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

          This study is anchored on the Agenda setting and the gate keeping theories of the mass media. These are social philosophies which seek to explain the relationship between the press and the society.

2.1.1  AGENDA – SETTING THEORY BY MCCOMB, AND SHAW (1972/1973)

          This theory predetermines what issues are considered important in the society. The theory explains the ability of the media to influence the relevance of events and issues in the views of the public. Donald L. Shaw (1973) once described that the press may not be successful in telling us what to think, but they are stunningly successful in telling us what to think about. According to Defleur and Melvin (1963), “There is a close relationship between the manner in which the press presents issues and the order of importance assigned to those issues by those exposed to the news”.

          McCombs who is regarded as the originator of the agenda-setting is credited with saying that the press is responsible for the pictures of events in our hearts. Invariably, McCombs and Shaw (1973:78) in their subsequent study agreed that the topics given the most coverage by the media are likely to be the topic the audience identifies as the most pressing issues of the day. Thus, the preposition with regards to the agenda-setting theory is that, the fact which the public know about issues are those which the press present to them as well as the significance with which they ascribe to the same issues in the media.

          Tan jong Enoh (1986) support this assertion by saying that: “the extent to which the media attends to certain issues can determine the degree to which the public attaches importance to those issues”.

          McQuail (1987:491) alludes to this by describing agenda-setting as a process of influence (Intended or unintended) by which the relative importance of news events, issues or personages on the public mind is affected by the order of presentation (or relative salience) in news report.

          Also, Bara (2002), observed that the spare of time to a story and its placement in the broadcast or on the print page, respectively is also a form of agenda-setting as people will consider the story more important than others. Supporting the foregoing, Iyenger and Kinder, (1987) assert that, the lead story on the mighty newscast had the greatest attention of the public.

2.1.2  GATE-KEEPING THEORY BY KURT LEWIN (1947)

          This theory is very important in mass communication. The proponent of this theory are of the view that for a news item to get to the audience form its origin, it must pass through the hands of certain individuals or organizations whose duty is to determine whether or not such an event can be relayed to the audience.

          Gatekeepers can be editors, magazine, publishers, television news directors, movie producers and radio station managers. Their basic function no matter their designation is to evaluate media content and to determine its relevance or value to the audience. They therefore check, restrain or clarify media content. The gatekeepers can refuse opening the gate to a given message. They can also modify message before transmission or publication or even kill it outright. According to White (1950), the newspaper editor “in his position as gatekeeper sees to it that the community shall hear as a fact only those events which the newsman believes to be true”.

          According to McQuail (1987), eventual news contents of the media arrive from different routes and in different forms. Hence, the press employs its gatekeeping function to determine the news worthiness of news item by sorting out, ordering in advance or systematically planning which items should be published for public consumption. Also, he added that the process of sorting and selecting suitable news items is not random-subjective.

          It is pertinent to note that the gatekeeper is a part of the media institution and most of his work has very positive or negative effect on the quality of messages disseminated to public. In newspaper, the gatekeepers may have some of or all the three basic functions in mass communication process.

1.     He has the power to delete a message

2.     He can increase the amount and importance of a certain information and

3.     He can decrease the amount and importance of a specific kind of information. Herbert, unusual and Bohn (1974:046).

          In the face of today’s tremendous news outputs, every news medium must be selective and this is where gatekeeping functions comes into play. The basic effect of the gatekeeping role of the press is the messages could be altered in some way, usually in the way it could please the editor. It is only when this alteration seriously distorts public view that the gatekeeping function becomes unsatisfactory.

2.2     CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

2.2.1  MISCONCEPTION OF WOMEN IN THE SOCIETY

          According to Winner (1987), there are the belief that men are more important than women or are far too sophisticated, more significant and more valuable than women more worthwhile is the value that justifies the idea that it is more important for a man, the breadwinner to have a job or a promotion, than a woman, more important for a man to be paid well, more important for a man to have an education and in general to have preference over a woman. It is the basis of the feeling by men that if women enter a particular occupation they will degrade it and that men must leave or be themselves degraded, and the feeling by women is that they can raise the prestige of their professions by recruiting men, which they can only do by giving them the better jobs. From this value comes the attitude that a husband must earn more than his wife or suffer a loss of personal status a wife must subsume her interests to his or be socially castigated. From this value comes the practice of rewarding men for serving in the armed forces and punishing women for having children. The first core concept of women liberation is that men does the important job in the world and the work done by men is what is paramount.

          The second core concept is that women are here for the pleasure and assistance of men. This is what is meant when women are told that their role is complementary to that of men; that they should fulfill their natural “feminine” functions; that they are “different” from men and should not compete with them. From this concept comes the attitude that women are and should be dependent on men, for everything but especially their identities, the social definition of who they are. It defines the few roles for which women are socially rewarded-wife, mother and mistress all of which are pleasing or beneficial to men, and leads directly to the “pedestral” theory which extols women who stay in their place as good help-mates to men.

          Winner (1987: p.78) further posit that, it is this attitude that stigmatized women who are not married or who d not devote their primary energies to the care of men and their children. Association with a man is the basic criterion for participation by women in this society and one who does not seek her identity through a man is a threat to the social values. It is similarly this attitude which causes women’s liberation activities to be labeled as man haters for exposing the nature of feminism. People feel that a woman not devoted to looking after men must act this way because of hatred or inability to “catch” one. The second core concept of feminist thought is that women’s identities are defined by their relationship to men and their social value by that of the men they are related to.

          The feminism of our society is so pervasive that we are not even aware of all its inequities unless one has developed a sensitivity to its working, by adopting a self-consciously contrary view, its activities are accepted as “normal” and justified with little question. People are said to “choose what infact they never thought about a good example is what happed during and after World War II. The sudden onslaught of the war radically changed the whole structure of social relationships as well as the economy. Men were drafted into the army and women into the labour force. Now desperately needed, women’s wants were provided for as were those of the boys on the front. Federal financing of day care centers in the form of the Landham Act passed congress in a record two weeks-special crash training programmes were provided for the new women workers to give them skills they were not previously thought capable of exercising. Women instantly assumed positions of authority and responsibility unavailable only the year before. But what happened when the war ended? Both men and women had heeded their country’s call to duty to bring it to a successful conclusion. Yet men were rewarded for their efforts and women punished for theirs. The returning soldiers were given the veteran benefits as well as their jobs back and a disproportionate share of the new ones crested by the war economy. Women, on the other hand, saw their child care centers dismantled and their training programmes cease. They were fired or demoted in droves and often found it difficult to enter colleges flooded with matriculating on government money. Is it any wonder that the heard the messages that their place was in the kitchen? Where else could they go? Moffat al et. (1995).

          Other historical examples of women liberation stereotyping in media abound. A 1979 magazine advertisement for shrader universal value corps serves as a self-explanatory example of sexual objectification as a means of marketing (Lukas, 2002) the advertisement features a scantily clad (for the times) women as the main focal point of an informative message in which her presence bears no relevance to the automobile products in question. Perhaps this represents objectivity in advertising: there is no purpose for the woman’s presence in the advertisement other than to provide an audience with “something” to view. Another magazine advertisement compiled within the Gender Ads project, this one a Lux ad of 1979, continues the media tradition of depicting women as housewives herd hostage by their “wifely duties” such as many marketing messages of the period, the ad features images of a husband and son clearly enjoying their leisure time while the apron-clad wife must deal with an overwhelming stack of dirty dishes. The advertisement also includes stereotypical, cliché-ridden text that exols the inevitable messes made by men that the wives of the world must inevitably clean up. Here, while informing a female audience about a housecleaning product, marketers designed their bias to appeal to the housewife who at least wishes to be free of her gender restraints.

          What of those women who have succeeded in casting off the shackles of oppression? Often stymied by its few against many position in matters of policy and public opinion, the women’s liberation movement tend to be championed by its adaptors and ignored, ridiculed or overlooked by the general population. Feminists have not gone unawares of media’s systemic stereotyping of their efforts. As Bronstein (2005) notes, “Research often confirmed feminists fear that the new media framed them in ways unlikely to carry public favour, so few as to be practically non existent, positive depictions of feminism in mass media are largely lost under the counter weight of their ill defined or intentionally damaging contenders. Although the United states now see more independent, empowered female figures than ever before, mass media’s historically imperative in decrying feminism a dirty word has ensured many women’s reluctance to associated with that stigmatized term. Women who believe themselves equal to their male counterparts do not necessarily consider themselves feminists, confounding efforts toward universal sisterhood”.

          Bronstein (2005) went further to aver that the irony of mass media’s attitude toward women liberation has in mass media’s historical roles in enabling women liberation. Without media outlets, what success the women’s liberation movement might have achieved to date is left to speculation. In the developmental stages of the movement, newspapers and fliers served vital roles in distributing literature geared to unite women over the issue of fighting for their rights to vote and be voted for.

          However, although the media has served as the platform that made communication of the women’s liberation movement an attainable goal, the media has simultaneously and persistently gone out of its way to counteract, discredit, and trivialize those efforts. Stereotypical imagery and innuendo continue to present the public at large with derogatory references to feminists and females, often typecasting them with unflattering or insulting descriptions.

          In addition, sexual objectifications of women grows even more prescient in advertising and mass media in general, and many market perpetuate clever reincarnations of imagery from by gone ears that relegate women to politicians as simple housewives. As a cursory glance through the annals of time shows, the media has, at best, dealt the women’s liberation movement a condescending, humoring tone. Through mocking attitudes conveyed wit sarcastic coverage, stereotypical advertising imagery and dismissive marketing messages, the media reinforces negative typecasting of gender roles and women’s advocacy. The particular wording of media messaging changes overtime to satirize adapting historical and social norms, but the underlying attitudes of oppression and dismissal have not changed much.

2.3     EMPIRICAL REVIEW

2.3.1  HISTORY OF THE PRESS IN NIGERIA

          Press in Nigeria covers local issues, politics, major events and celebrations, lifestyles of the Nigerian people and business news of Nigeria. The Nigerian newspapers includes esteemed dailies, well-liked tabloids and periodicals that defend the welfare of ethnic groups in Nigeria.

          In the Enemugwem, the history of the Nigerian press could be divided into two parts. First, is “pro-professional” media houses that spanned between 1859 and 1914. Second is the “proto-professional era” that started from 1914 and 1921. This second phase actually initiated the campaign for constitutional development in Nigeria. The Nigerian press commenced on Thursday 10^th March, 1921 with the professionalism introduced by Ernest Ikoli, the first Nigerian newspaper editor. The first and second period above, between 1859 and 1921 gave rise to the Lagos press that held the south western fort for sixty years with its influence extending to 1922. Since politics enjoyed great prominence on the writing of the Lagos press. The press was able to play the significant role of check and balances in the early colonial administration of our country form 1861 when Lagos became a crown colony to 1922 when the Nigerian constitution of 192 was achieved. This acknowledgment points to the role of the press played in the colony of Lagos and the protectorate of southern Nigeria, as well as the press campaign for constitutional development.

          Historically, Nigeria has boasted the most free and outspoken press of any African country out also one which has consistently been the target of harassment by the post military dictatorships and now under the governance of Nigeria’s current civilian president Goodluck Ebele Jonathan.

          The Nigerian press is a concept that predates colonial state and society, as well as the Nigeria state project. The idea of journalism in Nigeria which began one in Calabar in 1847 and the other in Abeokuta in 1859, in what eventually came to be a now nation-state has a chequered evolution and varied roles. It has however run from that evangelical (church) journalism in Calabar alongside that of Rev. Henry Townsend’s “Iwe Irohin” in Abeokuta to the nationalism journalism of Herbert Macaulay’s “Lagos Daily News”, Nnamdi Azikewe’s west African pilot” up through the post-independence communication”. Consciousness, which has now been closely followed by what is seen as the hegemony-tending media baron of today.

          The Nigeria press intervened in various stages of the country for independence. It also propped arguments for hope and continuity of the project, irrespective of such vitiating factors as ethnicism, myopia, corruption and ignorance. Furthermore, it must be said of the Nigeria press of the time, that it quickly snatched itself from the vortex of partisan politics, after very acidic editorial publications from both newspapers that is “West African Pilot” and “Lagos Daily News” to prepare itself for the independence of Nigeria from British colonial rule in 1960.

          Nigeria press today according to Segun Toyin Darvodu; “acts as the beacon of light for the sustenance of democracy, and a force for freedom which lie between ignorance, lack of direction, poor governance and a protector of the innocent”.

          It I pertinent to mention at this juncture that many agents of Nigeria’s press have been imprisoned, exiled, tortured or murdered as a result of their writings and outspokenness.

          Among them is the Ogoni activist and television producer, Ken Saro-Wiwa, who was executed for treason by the order of Sani Abacha dictatorships in 1995. Even under the somewhat less-oppressive current government, journalists have continued to come under fire from the government or other popular establishments. Such as the self-imposed exile of “This day’s Daniel following the riots in Northern Nigeria over “sensitive comments”. She made in an article regarding Muhammed and the 2002 miss world pageant; a fatwa calling for her head to be chopped off was issued by the Mullahs of Northern Nigeria, but was declared null and void by the relevant religious leaders in Saudi Arabia, and the then president, Olusegun Obasanjo faced an international public relations smearing (especially within journalistic circles).

          The Nigerian press today still acts as the beacon of light for sustenance of democracy despite the pressure that they are faced with such act is seen in the role of the media played in an effort to bring peace to Nigeria.

2.3.2  THE ROLE OF THE NEWSPAPER IN A MULTI-ETHNIC SOCIETY

          As a medium of mass communication, the newspaper has a great role to play in any given society. One of such roles is creating public awareness on issues of public interest.

          This role of the newspaper as well as other media of mass communication agrees with the Agenda setting theory, which forms the basis for this study.

          McQuail (1977, p.71) Sees one of the roles of the media in their ability, in some respects to inhibit as well as promote change.

          Newspaper being one of the mass media can be used in a multi-ethnic society to either promote or inhibit change. While agreeing with Herbert, Mboho (2003: p.6) observes that one of the functions of mass media is to serve as instruments for public awareness.

          Newspapers are a veritable medium of helping to improve the environmental status need. However, whatever role the media play, is a reflection of the entire society as Murdock and Golding (1983 p.15) have noted that mass media (including the newspaper) play a key role in class inequalities which are very conspicuous in a multi-ethnic society as Nigeria.