LITERATURE REVIEW ON CLIMATE CHANGE ON GROWING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN ITU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, AKWA IBOM STATE
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is to review related
literature concerning the topic of the research. Review will base on the following
sub-headings:
2.1
Conceptual
review
2.1.1 The concept of climate change
2.1.2 The concept of agricultural products
2.1.3 Cause of climate change
2.1.4 Effect of climate change
2.1.5 Impact of climate change on Agriculture
2.2
Empirical
review
2.2.1The
influence of climate change on cocoa production
2.2.2 The
influence of climate change on fluted pumpkin production.
2.2.3 The
influence of climate change on fish farming production
2.2.4 Socio-economic
and climate change impact on agriculture
2.3
Summary
of literature
2.1 Conceptual
Review of Literature
2.1.1Concept of Climate Change
Climate change is a long-term change
in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from
decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average weather conditions
or a change in the distribution of weather event with respect to an average,
for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events. Climate change may be
limited to a specific region or may occur across the whole earth.
The intergovernmental panel on climate
change (IPCC) define climate change as any change in climate over time, whether
due to natural variability or as a result of human activity
Key Concept of Climate Change
i.
Vulnerability to Climate Change
Vulnerability is the degree to which a
system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate
change, including climate variability and extremes, vulnerability is a function
of the character, magnitude and rate of climate variation to which a system is
exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity. IPCC, (2001). According to Okummadewa (2003),
vulnerability is the likelihood of a shock causing a significant welfare loss.
He was of the opinion that vulnerability depends on expose to risk which may be
ex-ante (before) or ex-post (after).
Santiago (2001), stated that
vulnerability is the extent to which a natural or social system is susceptible
to damage from climate change. To be vulnerable, according to the World Bank
(2004) can therefore be understood as the propensity of a society (household)
to experience substantial damage and disruption on result of hazards e.g.
drought, flood, conflict etc. Vulnerability is caused by inequality,
inappropriate governance structure and mal-adaption economic and agricultural development
(Jagtag, 2005).
The vulnerability of agricultural
production can be view in terms of the problems encountered by farmers that
hamper increased production. This can be categorized into shocks, and flood
which trends are fluctuated in prices, inadequate manpower during season etc.
Farmers are said to be vulnerable to the effect of climate change, if they are
unable to cope with or recover from adverse effect of climate variability and
extreme on his production.
ii. Concept
of Adaptation
Adaptation are adjustment to, or
intervention which takes place inorder to manage the losses or take advantage
of the opportunities presented by a changing climate (IPCC, 2001).
The IPCC (2001) defines adaptive
capacity as the ability of a system (human or natural) to adjust to climate
change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential
damages, to take advantage of opportunities or to cope with the consequences.
According to Santiago (2001),
adaptation involves adjustment to enhance the variability of social and
economic activities and to reduce their vulnerability to climate, including its
current variability and extreme event as well as longer term climate change.
Adaptation to climate is the process
through which people reduce the adverse effects of climate on their health and
well-being and take advantage of opportunities that their climate environment
provides.
Term adaptation means any adjustment
whether passive reactive or anticipatory that is proposed as a mean for
ameliorating the anticipated adverse consequences associated with climate
change (Alao, 2009).
2.1.2 Concept of Agricultural Products
Agricultural products are the
production of agricultural items such as rice, wheat, cocoa, cotton and so on.
According to World Trade Organization
(WTO) agricultural products are define as including live animals and animal
products, vegetable products, fats and decomposition products, food and
beverages. According to Agricultural product quality safety provision of
Article II, Agricultural product is the primary product obtained in the
agricultural activities of plants, animals, micro-organisms and their products.
The National Organic Programme (NOP)
defined Agricultural commodity or product, whether raw or processed, including
any commodity or product derived from livestock that is marketed for human or
livestock consumption.
According to Legal Information
Institute (LII), Agricultural products mean agricultural, horticultural,
vilticultural and dairy products, livestock and the products thereof, the
edible products of forestry and or all products raised on processed on farm or
manufactured products therefore, transported or intended to be transported in
interstate/or foreign commerce.
In the American Indian Agricultural
Resource Management, chapter 39, the term Agricultural product means;
i.
Crops grown under cultivated
condition whether used for personal consumption, subsistence or sold for
commercial benefit.
ii.
Domestic livestocks, including
cattle, sheep, goat, swine, fowls etc, specifically raised and utilized for
food or fiber or as a boast of burden.
iii.
Forage, hay, folders, feed grains,
crop residues and other items grown or harvested for feeding and care of
livestock, sold for commercial benefit or used for other purposes.
Inspite of all these agricultural
products mentioned above, three are selected for the study and these includes:
cocoa production, fluted pumpkin production and fish farming.
2.1.3 Causes of Climate Change
Climate change is caused by factors that
include oceanic process (such as oceanic circulation biotic processes,
variations in solar radiation received by Earth, Plate tectonics and volcanic
eruptions and human-induced alteration of the natural world; these latter
effects are currently causing global warming.
On the broadest scale, the rate at which
energy is received from the sun and the rate at which it is lost to space
determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth.
This energy is distributed around the
globe by winds ocean currents and other mechanism to affect the climates of
different regions.
Also, human activities through changes
in land use, burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) deforestation and
increase in population are responsible for the accumulation of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere that result in global warming.
2.1.4 Effects of Climate Change
The
effects of climate change that we see happen now:
i.
Sea
level is rising: During the 20th century, sea
level rose about 15cm (6 inches) due to melting glacier ice and expansion of
warmer seawater.
ii.
Arctic
sea ice is melting: The summer thickness of sea ice is
about half of what it was in 1950. Melting ice may lead to changes in ocean
circulation plus melting sea ice is speeding up warming in the Arctic.
iii.
Sea:
Surface temperatures are warming. Warmer water in the shallow oceans has
contributed to the death of about a quarter of the worlds coral reefs in the
last few decades. Many of the coral animals died after weakened by bleaching, a
process tied to warm waters.
iv.
Glacier
and permafrost are melting: Over the past 100 years, mountain
glaciers in all the areas of the world have decreased in size and so has the
amount of permafrost in the Arctic.
v.
Heavier
rainfall causes flooding in many regions: Warmer
temperature has led to more intense rainfall events in some areas and this can
cause flooding.
vi.
Extreme
drought is increasing: Higher temperature cause a higher
rate of evaporation and more droughts in some are of the world.
vii.
Crops
are withering: Increased temperature and extreme
drought are causing a decline in crop production around the world. Decreased
crop productivity can mean food shortages which may have social implications.
viii.
Ecosystem
is changing: As temperature warm, species may either
move to a cooler habitat or die. Species that are particularly vulnerable
include endangered species, coral reefs and polar animals.
ix.
Warming has also cause changes in
the timing of spring event and event and length of the growing season.
x.
Warmer temperature affects human
health. There have been more death due to heat wave and more changes in the
ranges of animals that, carry disease like mosquitoes.
xi.
Seawater is becoming more
acidic-carbondioxide dissolving into the oceans is making seawater more acidic.
There could be impact of coral reefs and other marine life.
2.1.5 Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture
Despite technological advances, such
as improved varieties, genetically modified organisms and irrigations systems,
weather is still a key factor in agricultural productivity, as well as climate
change or variability on agricultural production in the developing countries
have been well establish through field experiments, statistical analysis
recorded in crop yields and monitoring of agricultural production (Mendelssohn,
2000).
Increase intensity and frequency of climate
related hazards such as severe storms and river bank erosion have implication
for future food availability in Africa (NEST, 2004).
Climate change induced by increasing
greenhouse gases is likely to affect crops differently from region to region (Yesuf,
et al. 2008).
The impact of climate change
represents a major challenge to sustainable development, food security and
level of poverty in the country especially the Niger Delta. This is partly
because, climate changes have already occurred and are still expected to be
more pronounced in the area than in other regions of the county due to oil
exploration and exploitation that result in environmental degradation of the
area (Ekpo, 2010).
This also due to the economic and
social importance of agriculture in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria yet the
agricultural sector in the majority of tropical countries is already unable to
provide a sustainable livelihood for the growing rural population, let alone to
ensure national food security (Molua and Lambi, 2007).
Niger Delta regions of Nigeria are
particularly vulnerable to climate change because of their dependence on
rainfed agriculture, high level of poverty, low level of human and physical
capital, poor infrastructure, pollution from oil companies and low level of
technology (IPCC, 2007).
The vulnerability of climate change in
agriculture sector is due to it high dependence on climate and weather and
because people involved in agriculture tend to be poorer compared with region.
About 35% of the state Gross Domestic Products (GDP) comes from agriculture and
related activities and about 80% of the poor live in rural area work primarily
in agriculture (IPCC, 2007).
Changes in rainfall season (March to
July and September to November) are likely to cause several water shortages or
flowing with far reaching implication on agriculture, forestry, fishing and
health system (Ayoade, 2001).
Rising temperatures will cause shift
in crop growing seasons which affects food security and changes in the
distribution of disease vector putting more people at risk from disease such as
malaria and dung fever. Temperature rise will potentially and severally
increase rates of extinction for many habitats and species.
The irony of climate change impact in
the area is that, the rural poor farmers and fishermen who contributed the
least to cause the problems are more vulnerable to its impacts. They are likely
to suffer the more damages from climate change because they are least endowed
with resources to combat the problem and their economics are based largely on
natural resources dependants sectors that are climate sensitive.
In the face of these impact of climate
change (global warming), there are two response to the crises; mitigation (how
to stop further releasing greenhouse gases into atmosphere) and adaptation (how
people can survive in the presence of theses disaster.
IPCC (2001) defined adaptation as
response to actual or expected climate stimuli or their effects which allow the
system to moderate harm on exploit beneficial opportunities.
Itu Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom
State is living in a low lying coastal region that is vulnerable to climate
change impact.
Climate-related
hazard make biogeophysical resources of the area highly susceptible to
climate-related extreme event such as floods, salinity intrusion from Atlantic
Ocean, severe wind storm, river bank erosion and excessive rise in temperature.
Climate Change could affect
Agriculture in Several ways;
1.
Productivity: Interms of quality
and quantity of crops.
2.
Agricultural practices, through
changes water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs such as herbicides,
insecticides and fertilizers.
3.
Environmental effects,
in-particular in relation of frequency and intensity of social drainage
(leading to nitrogen leaching) soil erosion, reduction of crop diversity.
4.
Rural space, through the loss and
gain of cultivated lands, land speculation, land renunciation and hydraulic
amenities.
5.
Adaptation: Organisms may become
more or less competitive, as well as human may develop urgency to develop more
competitive organism such as flood resistant or salt resistant varieties of
crops.
2.2 Empirical
Review
2.2.1The Influence of Climate
Change on Cocoa Production
Cocoa production has been experiencing
a declining trend in recent years and many factors have been implicated. One of
these factors is the effect of climate factors that is the effect of climate
variables in cocoa seedling raising, production and processing.
The high rate of climate changes in
the economy have greater influence on the three (3) phases of cocoa production
ranging from seedling phase, establishment phase and processing phase. This
is because, weather and climate
influence most of the processes involved in cocoa production, example: solar
radiation produces energy for warming the soil, plants, air and metabolic
process, rainfall and its characteristics interms of amount, intensity,
reliability and distribution influence crop growth and soil erosion (Iwena,
2002).
Atmospheric evaporability determines
the performance and survival of crops. Planting date of coca seeds are
determined by start of rain. Irrigation adds economic value to the products.
Sun drying reduces the water content of cocoa seed and makes its processing
easier.
From the above, it is shown that all
cocoa production process are directly or indirectly weather and climate
dependent.
Cocoa is highly sensitive to changes
in climate from hours of sunshine to rainfall and application of water, soil
condition and particularly to temperature due to effects on
evapo-transpiration. Climate change could also alter stages on rates of
development on cocoa pest and pathogens, modify host resistance and result in
changes in physiology of host pathogen or pest interaction, this alter cocoa
yield and result to crop loses, which will impact socio-economic variable such
as farm income, farm level decision making, marketing and farmers’ livelihood
(Anyanwu 2001).
Cocoa is highly susceptible to drought
and the pattern of cropping cocoa is related to rainfall distribution. Cocoa
seedling mortality is encouraged by prolonged dry season (drought), short dry
season affects pod filling which affect the bean size. In mature cocoa plant,
water deficit results in low yield and increases the level of capsid damage
(capsid is an insect that makes cocoa difficult to establish). Blackpod disease
are the most destructive disease that affect ripening cocoa pod and it is
mostly related to climate and prevalent in damp situation and most destructive
during wet season (Oluyole, 2013).
The disease is therefore worse in the
area of heavy rainfall. Losses due to blackpod diseases vary from place to
place and from variety to variety (Oluyole, 2013).
As for sunshine, solar radiation is
necessary to speed up the photosynthetic-rate. Apart from this, it produces
solar energy for warming the soil, plant, air and metabolic processes. Sunshine
is also necessary to reduce the water content of cocoa beans during drying
thereby enhancing the quality of cocoa beans. But prolong wet season, windy or
cloudy days and rain, slow down drying and processing of cocoa sees thereby
reducing the value of the bean and increase the cost of processing. In general,
climate change influences cocoa production in Itu Local Government Area.
2.2.2 The
Influence of Climate Change on Fluted Pumpkin Production
Fluted pumpkin (Telfairia
occidentalis) production however is beset with myriad of constraints of which
climate change is one of the most outstanding. It is dioeciously and perennial
plant which is known to tolerate drought to a reasonable extent. It needs some
water and some sunshine (Njoku, 2013). Fluted pumpkin farmers depend on climate
signals as a major determinant of their farming activities. This makes climate
very significant in the production of crops. The farmers said climate
conditions are no longer predictable as they used to be in the past and that
they have encountered a series of loses as a result of the changes in climates.
According to Njoku (2012), the
unpredictable climate condition; changes in rainfall pattern, changes in
rainfall distribution reduced yield of fluted pumpkin and reduction of family
income. All stages of production of fluted pumpkin are affected by the change
in climate (Ekpo, 2000). The planting are determined by the start of rains. A
rise in temperature (prolong dry season) affect the pumpkin seedlings. This
alter the growth of the plants (Stunted growth) thereby causing reduction in
the yield of fluted pumpkin, discoloration of fluted pumpkin leaves and low maturity of fluted pumpkin pods (Njoku,
2012).
2.2.3 The
Influence of Climate Change on Fishery Production
Current global fisheries production
ranges 160 million tons is rising as a result of increase in aquaculture
production. A number of climate related threats to both capture fisheries and
aquaculture are identified, but we have low confidence in reduction of future
fisheries production because of uncertainty over future global aquatic not
primary production through the food chain to human consumption. Recent changes
in the distribution and productivity of a number of fish species can be
described with high confidence to regional climate variability, such as the El
Nino-southern oscillation. Future production may increase in some high latitude
regions because of warming and decreased ice cover, but the dynamics in
low-latitude regions are governed by different processes and production may
decline as a result of reduced vertical mixing of the water column and hence,
educed recycling of nutrients. There are story interactions between the effects
of fishing and the effects of climate because fishing reduces the age, size and
geographic diversity of populations and the bio-diversity of marine ecosystems,
making both more sensitive to additional stresses such as climate change.
Inland fisheries are additional threatened by changes in precipitation and
water management. The frequency and intensity of extreme climate event is
likely to have a major impact on future fisheries production in both inland and
marine systems.
Reducing fishing mortality in the
majority of fisheries which are currently fully exploited or over exploited, is
the principal feasible means of reducing the impacts of climate change.
(Kirgsloy, Agro services, 2013).
Fresh water fish farming is threatened
by salt water intrusion into Itu River from Atlantic Ocean. Changes in key
water variables examples; temperature salinity intrusion, wind speed and
direction, ocean current and strength of upwelling affect the abundance and
distribution of fish production and fisheries activities (Christy FT, 1983).
Increase temperature is likely to result in increased mortality rate of most
fishing resources.
Flooding is the most climatic hazards
in the area that affect fish-Farming activities. Heavy and prolong rainfall
which have been occurring in recent years in flooding. Flooding disrupt fishing
activities. This is because during flooding, some fish migrates to flooded area
and the fishermen are not able to use their net in the flooded water (Meredith
p. 2009).
The occurrence of extreme weather
event result in decreased availability of some species of fish, which they move
to the bottom of water when sea condition are rough. There is increase in the
rate of destruction of fish traps, boats and risk involved during the windy
seasons in the study area. An increased frequency of storm may result in
un-availability of fish for farmers to catch.
Beverton (1992), observe that ‘a rise
in sea level has greater risk of storm surge, inundation and wave damage to
coastline.
Climate change in the past, has
affected inland and offshore fisheries and such changes are likely to continue.
From a fisheries perspective, the specific driving factors of climate changes
including rising water temperature, alterations in hydrologic cycle, changes in
nutrient fluxes, and relocation of spawning and nursery habitat.
2.2.4 Socio-economic
and Climate Change Impact on Agriculture
There is significant concern about the
impact of climate change and its variability on agricultural production
worldwide, first, issue of food security figure prominently in the list of
human activities and ecosystem services under threat of dangerous,
anthropogenic interference on earth climate (Watson, 2009).
Second, each country is naturally
concerned with potentials damages and benefits that may arise over the coming
decades from climate change impacts on its territory as well as globally. These
will affect domestic and international policies, trading patterns, resource
use, regional planning and ultimately the welfare of its people (Kimball,
2002).
Kimball says the associated impacts of
high temperatures, altered patterns of precipitation and possibly increased
frequency of extreme event such as drought and floods, will probably combine to
depress yields and increase production risks in many world regions, widening
the gap between rich and poor countries. A consensus has emerged that
developing countries are more vulnerable to climate change than developed
countries because of predominance of agriculture in their economics, the
scarcity of capital adaptation measures, there warmer baseline climates and
other heightened exposure to extreme events. Thus, climate change may have
particularly serious consequences in the developing world, where some 500 million
people are undernourished.
The climate change issue is global,
long-term and involves complex interaction between demographic, climatic,
environmental, economic, health, political, institutional, social and
technological processes. It has significant international and intergenerational
implication in the context of equity and sustainable development.
Climate change will impact on social,
economic and environmental systems and shape prospects for food, water and
health security (Steffen, 2004).
2.3 Summary
of Literature
Literature review in this study
consists of both conceptual review of literature and empirical reports. From
the conceptual review, climate change as a change in the average weather
condition has been reported to have greater influenced on agricultural product
as well as having implication for future food availability in Africa (NEST,
2004; IPCC, 2007; Ekpo, 2010).
From the review empirical studies, it
was found out that, the studied agricultural products; cocoa, fluted pumpkin
and fishery are influenced by climate change.
The review showed that, the high rate
of climate change in the economy have greater influence on the three (3) phases
of coca production ranging from seedling phase, establishment phase and
processing phase (Iwena, 2002).
According to the review in the study,
fluted pumpkin farmers depend on climate signals as a major determinant of
their farming activities. The unpredictable climate conditions affect the
pumpkin seedlings, reduces the yield of fluted and also alter the growth of the
plants (Njoku, 2012; Ekpo 2000).
The review showed also that, changes
in key water variation, example; temperature, salinity intrusion, wind speed
and direction, ocean current and flooding affect the abundance and distribution
of fish production (Christy FT, 1983).
The review also showed that, climate
change will impact on social, economic and environmental system and shape
prospects for food, water and health security (Steffen, 2004).
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